Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
ENGINEERING
Introduction
Objectives
Summary
Introduction
Fluid mechanics is a study of the behavior of fluids, either at rest (fluid statics) or in motion (fluid dynamics).
The analysis is based on the fundamental laws of mechanics, which relate continuity of mass and energy
with force and momentum.
An understanding of the properties and behavior of fluids at rest and in motion is of great importance in
engineering.
Dinmica Estatica
Objectives
Identify the units for the basic quantities of time, length, force and mass.
The study related to a fluid in rest or stationary is referred to fluid static, otherwise
it is referred to as fluid dynamic.
Fluid can be defined as a substance which can deform continuously when being
subjected to shear stress at any magnitude. In other words, it can flow
continuously as a result of shearing action. This includes any liquid or gas.
1.1 Definition of Fluid
A fluid is a substance, which deforms continuously, or flows, when subjected to
shearing force
In fact if a shear stress is acting on a fluid it will flow and if a fluid is at rest there
is no shear stress acting on it.
For gases, it is very weak which enables the gas to disintegrate and move
away from its container.
Free surface
k k
On the other hand, the velocity of the fluid is the same at every point, no
shear stress will be produced, the fluid particles are at rest relative to
each other.
Fixed surface
Differences between liquid and gases
Liquid Gases
Difficult to compress and often regarded as Easily to compress changes of volume is large,
incompressible cannot normally be neglected and are related to
temperature
Occupies a fixed volume and will take the No fixed volume, it changes volume to expand to fill
shape of the container the containing vessels
A free surface is formed if the volume of Completely fill the vessel so that no free surface is
container is greater than the liquid. formed.
Newtonian and Non-Newtonian Fluid
obey refer
Newtons law of viscosity
Fluid Newtonian fluids
The viscosity is a function only of the condition of the fluid, particularly its
temperature.
The magnitude of the velocity gradient (du/dy) has no effect on the magnitude of .
Newtonian and Non-Newtonian Fluid
Do not obey
Fluid Newtons law of viscosity Non- Newtonian fluids
Newtonian Fluids
a linear relationship between shear stress and the velocity gradient (rate of shear),
the slope is constant
the viscosity is constant
non-Newtonian fluids
slope of the curves for non-Newtonian fluids varies
Figure 1.1. Shear stress vs.
velocity gradient
Bingham plastic : resist a small shear stress but flow easily under large shear stresses,
e.g. sewage sludge (fango de aguas residuales), toothpaste, and jellies
(jaleas).
Pseudo plastic : most non-Newtonian fluids fall under this group. Viscosity decreases
with increasing velocity gradient, e.g. colloidal substances like clay,
milk, and cement.
Dilatants : viscosity decreases with increasing velocity gradient, e.g. quicksand
(arena movidiza).
1.2 Units and Dimensions
The primary quantities which are also referred to as basic dimensions,
such as L for length, T for time, M for mass and Q for temperature.
This dimension system is known as the MLT system where it can be used to
provide qualitative description for secondary quantities, or derived
dimensions, such as area (L), velocity (LT-1) and density (ML-3).
In some countries, the FLT system is also used, where the quantity F
stands for force.
Faculty of Engineering and
Technical Studies
Sistema de Unidades
Existe tres sistemas de unidades principales empleadas en ingeniera y ciencia: SI, Ingls y CGS.
En la actualidad se ha adoptado el SI para utilizar exclusivamente en ingeniera y ciencias
Los sistemas de unidades estn basados en ciertas dimensiones bsicas, o primarias, a partir
de los cuales es posible definir cualquier otra utilizando para ello leyes fsicas,
dimensionalmente homogneas que las relaciona.
DIMENSIONES UNIDADES EN SI
Longitud metro
Tiempo segundo
Masa kg
Temperatura K
Dimensiones Secundarias
V = V0 + at
where
V0 = is the initial velocity,
a = the acceleration and
t = the time interval. In terms for dimensions of the equation,
we can expand that
LT-1 = LT -1 + LT-2 T
Example
du
m kx 0
dt
[u]
[m] = [k][x]
[t]
Hence,
[m][u] M LT-1
[k] = =
[t][x] LT
= MT-2
1.2 Engineering Units
Primary Units
Quantity SI Unit
Length Metre, m
Mass Kilogram, kg
Time Seconds, s
Temperature Kelvin, K
Current Ampere, A
Luminosity Candela
In fluid mechanics we are generally only interested in the top four units from this table.
Derived Units
Quantity SI Unit
velocity m/s -
acceleration m/s2 -
density kg/m3 -
Solution
F = ma
F = 80 kg x 10 m/s2 = 800 kg.m/s2
F= 800N
1.3 Fluid Properties
Density
Density of a fluid, ,
Definition: mass per unit volume,
= mass/volume = m/ (1.2)
Units: kg/m3
Typical values:
Water = 1000 kg/m3; ir = 1.23 kg/m3
Faculty of Engineering and
Technical Studies
Since = m/
therefore = g (1.3)
Units: N/m3
Typical values:
Specific gravity
The specific gravity (or relative density) can be defined in two ways:
s s
SG (1.4)
w @ 4C w @ 4C
Unit: dimensionless.
Example
A reservoir of oil has a mass of 825 kg. The reservoir has a volume of
0.917 m3. Compute the density, specific weight, and specific gravity
of the oil.
Solution:
mass m 825
oil 900kg / m3
volume 0.917
weight mg
oil g 900 x 9.81 8829 N / m 3
volume
oil 900
SGoil 0.9
w@ STP 998
Fluid Properties (Continue)
Viscosity
Viscosity, , is the property of a fluid, due to cohesion and interaction between
molecules, which offers resistance to shear deformation.
Different fluids deform at different rates under the same shear stress. The ease
with which a fluid pours is an indication of its viscosity. Fluid with a high viscosity
such as syrup deforms more slowly than fluid with a low viscosity such as water. The
viscosity is also known as dynamic viscosity.
/
will be found to be important in cases in which significant viscous and gravitational
forces exist.
Units: m2/s
Typical values:
Water = 1.14x10-6 m2/s; Air = 1.46x10-5 m2/s;
In general,
p1 p 2 v
p1 p 2 / LD 2 (1) (2)
32 2 32v
L D D v
Cuando la cada de presin se mide con manumetro en U
p1 p2 = h g [m - f]
h
h 2
L g m - f D i g (m - f ) D
=
2
= v 32
32 v
i gD
2
v 32
FD FB 0 = Fg Fb FD
(fuerza de (fuerza de
arrastre ) flotacin) Fuerza de gravedad:
Fg = m g = p Vp g
Fg
( fuerza de Fuerza de flotacin:
gravedad )
f
FB = m g = p Vp f g = Vp f g
p
p
Coeficiente de arrastre, CD
Fuerza de arrastres:
v2 A = (/4) D2
vD FD = CD f A
CD f (Re) , Re f 2
f
Reemplazando los respectivos valores de las fuerzas
Regin laminar, Re < 1,0 (ley de Stokes)
p Vp g - Vp f g - 3 f D v = 0
24 24 24 f
CD
Re f v D f v D
Vp g p - f = 3 f D v , Vp = D 3
f 6
24 f v 2 2 g p - f D2
FD f D = 3 f D v f =
f Vp D 2 4 18 v
Subject Matter Expert/Author: Assoc. Prof. Dr Othman A. Karim (OUM)
Faculty of Engineering and
Technical Studies
1 1t1 1 t1
1 2
2 2t2
2 t2
Viscosmetro de espacio estrecho: espesor muy pequeo [(Ro Ri )/Ri < 0,10 ],
v dv
r dr
vo - vi [0 Ri]
= -
Ro - Ri Ro Ri Ro Ri 1
Ro 1
Ri
Por aplicacin de las ecuaciones anteriores a los datos
experimentales obtenidos en el viscosmetro se llega a una tabla
de valores que, representada grficamente y por
comparacin con las curvas reolgicas de fluidos
independientes del tiempo, permite determinar el
comportamiento reolgico del fluid. A su vez, el ajuste de estos
datos a la ecuacin reolgica correspondiente permite la
estimacin de los parmetros que aparecen en la misma.
Subject Matter Expert/Author: Assoc. Prof. Dr Othman A. Karim (OUM)
Faculty of Engineering and
Technical Studies
Viscosmetro de espacio ancho: [(Ro Ri )/Ri > 0,10 ]
Fluidos newtonianos.
T
2 r2L
dv d
r
dr dr
d T
r
dr 2 r 2 L
T dr
d 3
2 L r
T 1 1
, mT
4 L Ri
2
Ro2
En forma anloga se hace el tratamiento matemtico, pero esta vez se sustituye la ley de viscosidad de Newton por la ley
de potencia, y se llega a la siguiente ecuacin: 1/ n
n T 1 1
1/ n 2 L Ri 2 / n
2k Ro 2 / n
Linearizando [ln(y) = a + m ln(x)], de forma que a partir de la ordenada en el origen y la pendiente de la representacin
grafica ln( ) ln( T ) se puede obtener los valores de los parmetros reolgicos de este tipo de fluidos, k y n.
n 1
1/ n
1 1 1 Fluidos plsticos de Bingham. En este caso, la ecuacin que
ln ln 1/ n 2 L Ri 2/ n 2/ n
ln T relaciona la velocidad de giro con el par de torsin depende de si
2k Ro n la tensin tangencial aplicada sobrepasa la de fluencia o no en todo
el espesor de fluidos:
T 1 1 Ro
c ln
4 L Ri
2 2
Ro Ri
T
si c
2 Ri 2 L
T 1 2 L c T
c ln 2
4 L Ri T 2 2 L c Ri
2
T T
si c
2 Ro L
2
2 Ri 2 L
Subject Matter Expert/Author: Assoc. Prof. Dr Othman A. Karim (OUM)
Vapor Pressure
A liquid in a closed container is subjected to a partial vapor pressure in the space above the liquid
due to the escaping molecules from the surface;
It reaches a stage of equilibrium when this pressure reaches saturated vapor pressure.
47
Subject Matter Expert/Author: Assoc. Prof. Dr Othman A. Karim (OUM) Copyright ODL Jan 2005 Open University Malaysia
Faculty of Engineering and
Technical Studies
48
Subject Matter Expert/Author: Assoc. Prof. Dr Othman A. Karim (OUM) Copyright ODL Jan 2005 Open University Malaysia
Surface Tension
Liquids possess the properties of cohesion and adhesion due to molecular attraction.
Due to the property of cohesion, liquids can resist small tensile forces at the interface between the
liquid and air, known as surface tension, .
Surface tension is defined as force per unit length, and its unit is N/m.
The reason for the existence of this force arises from intermolecular attraction. In the body of the liquid
(Fig. 1.2a), a molecule is surrounded by other molecules and intermolecular forces are symmetrical and
in equilibrium.
At the surface of the liquid (Fig. 1.2b), a molecule has this force acting only through 180.
This imbalance forces means that the molecules at the surface tend to be drawn together, and they act
rather like a very thin membrane under tension.
This causes a slight deformation at the surface of the liquid (the meniscus effect).
Surface tension is usually very small compared with other forces in fluid flows (e.g. surface tension
for water at 20C is 0.0728 N/m).
Surface tension,, increases the pressure within a droplet of liquid. The internal pressure, P, balancing
the surface tensional force of a spherical droplet of radius r, is given by
2R = pR2
2
P
r
Capillarity
The surface tension leads to the phenomenon known as capillarity
where a column of liquid in a tube is supported in the absence of an
externally applied pressure.
Rise or fall of a liquid in a capillary tube is caused by surface tension and
depends on the relative magnitude of cohesion of the liquid and the
adhesion of the liquid to the walls of the containing vessels.
Liquid rise in tubes if they wet a surface (adhesion > cohesion), such as
water, and fall in tubes that do not wet (cohesion > adhesion), such as
mercury.
Capillarity is important when using tubes smaller than 10 mm (3/8 in.).
For tube larger than 12 mm (1/2 in.) capillarity effects are negligible.
Figure 1.3 Capillary actions
2 cos
h (1.8)
r
where h = height of capillary rise (or depression)
= surface tension
= wetting (contact) angle
= specific weight of liquid
r = radius of tube
Example
A reservoir of oil has a mass of 825 kg. The reservoir has a volume of 0.917
m3. Compute the density, specific weight, and specific gravity of the oil.
weight mg
oil g 900 x 9.81 8829 N / m 3
volume
oil 900
SG oil 0.9
w @ 4 C 1000
Example
Water has a surface tension of 0.4 N/m. In a 3-mm diameter vertical tube,
if the liquid rises 6 mm above the liquid outside the tube, calculate the
wetting angle.
Solution
Capillary rise due to surface tension is given by;
2 cos
h
r
rh 9810x 0.0015x 0.006
cos
2 2 x 0.4
= 83.7
Summary