Teaching & Learning

????
Donald, 1980 ;; Aneh,
Donald, 1980 Aneh, kita
kita mengharap
mengharap
mahasiswa
mahasiswa belajar,
belajar, tapi
tapi tidak
tidak pernah
pernah atau
atau
jarang
jarang mengajarkan
mengajarkan mereka
mereka tentang
tentang mengajar.
mengajar.
Clement
Clement dan
dan Lochhead, 1980, ;; Kita
Lochhead, 1980, Kita
seharusnya
seharusnya mengajarkan
mengajarkan mahasiswa
mahasiswa bagaimana
bagaimana
berpikir,
berpikir, sebaliknya,
sebaliknya, kita
kita mengajarkan
mengajarkan merekamereka
apa
apa yang
yang dipikirkan
dipikirkan ..
Teaching & Learning

Facilitating learning of
concepts, principles, and problem-solving
skills & procedures
attitudes
Analysing topics and tasks to determine the
learning hierarchies involved and the most
appropriate sequence for teaching and learning
Applying Instructional Design approaches to
teaching and instructional materials development
 Conceptions
of
Teaching and Learning
What do you believe
you are doing
in your teaching?
Teacher-centred Student-centred
Content-oriented
Content-oriented Learning-oriented

Imparting Facilitating
information understanding

Presenting content Facilitating understanding

or process through engagement with
both content and process
 Facilitating
understanding
What
What understanding
understanding
Level
Level understanding
understanding
How
How understanding
understanding
 Where do we need to be?

Teacher-Centred Student-Centred
+ +
Content-Oriented Learning-Oriented
 Understanding
how people learn

Implications
Implications for
for
teaching
teaching && learning
learning
 Looking at Student Learning

Two
Two approaches
approaches to
to learning:
learning:
surface
surface approach
approach
-- concerned
concerned with
with remembering
remembering words
words

deep
deep approach
approach
-- concerned
concerned with
with understanding
understanding the
the
ideas
ideas behind
behind the
the words
words
Looking at Student Learning
surface
surface approach
approach students
students rely
rely on
on the
the teacher
teacher
to
to define
define learning
learning tasks
tasks
deep
deep approach
approach students
students look
look for
for meaning
meaning and
and
react
react critically
critically with
with what
what they
they are
are learning
learning
not
not all
all students
students develop
develop thinking
thinking skills;
skills;
rote
rote learners
learners probably
probably do
do not
not
Students
Students need
need to
to be
be able
able to
to adopt
adopt
aa deep
deep approach
approach toto learning
learning
 Looking at how
Students acquire Knowledge

knowledge
knowledge isis not
not absorbed
absorbed
knowledge
knowledge isis not
not about
about remembering
remembering
 Looking at how
Students acquire Knowledge

knowledge
knowledge isis structured
structured by
by individuals
individuals in
in
meaningful
meaningful ways
ways which
which grow
grow and
and change
change
over
over time
time
the
the way
way in
in which
which knowledge
knowledge isis stored
stored isis
related
related to
to the
the way
way itit isis encoded
encoded when
when itit isis
learned
learned
 Looking at how
Students acquire Knowledge
new content can be meaningfully learned only
where the student can relate the content to
already-existing cognitive structures in a
meaningful way
understanding of content is an activity of
a constructivist nature which is carried out by
the student using cognitive strategies
 Looking at how
Students acquire Knowledge

Schema Theory
Schema: the building block of cognition
new ideas are built on to the students existing
knowledge structure
relevant
relevant prior
prior knowledge
knowledge is
is therefore
therefore important
important
the student constructs a meaningful
representation in a network of propositions
 Looking at how
Students acquire Knowledge

Schema Theory
schema is a valid explanation for how learners
process and interpret information
strongly situated schemata might make it
difficult for learners to develop functional
problem-solving skills that are appropriate
across knowledge domains
 Looking at how
Students acquire Knowledge
Thinking & Learning
thinking is essential to the acquisition of
knowledge
knowledge is essential to thinking
skillful thinking is the ability to apply knowledge
effectively
people possessing the same knowledge can
differ significantly in how skillfully they apply
what they know
 Looking at how
Students acquire Knowledge
Thinking & Learning
high level thinking skills can be improved by
training
teaching of thinking skills is complementary to
the teaching of content
thinking ability and knowledge are the warp and
woof of intellectual competence
most people have the potential to develop far
more effective thinking skills than they do
 Looking at how
Students acquire Knowledge

experts
experts differ
differ from
from novices
novices in
in that
that they
they know
know more
more
about
about their
their area
area of
of expertise
expertise
experts
experts notnot only
only know
know more,
more,
-- they
they know
know they
they know
know more,
more,
-- they
they know
know better
better how
how to
to use
use what
what they
they know,
know,
-- what
what they
they know
know isis better
better organised
organised andand more
more
readily
readily accessible,
accessible,
-- and
and they
they know
know better
better how
how to
to learn
learn still
still more
more
(Nickerson
(Nickerson et
et al,
al,
1985)
1985)
 Looking at how
Students acquire Knowledge

Cognitive
Cognitive skills
skills that
that are
are necessary,
necessary, or
or helpful,
helpful, to
to
the
the acquisition,
acquisition, use,
use, and
and control
control of
of knowledge,
knowledge,
and
and other
other cognitive
cognitive skills,
skills, can
can be
be thought
thought of
of as
as
metacognitive
metacognitive skills
skills
(Nickerson
(Nickerson et
et
al,
al, 1985)
1985)
 Looking at how
Students acquire Knowledge

Metacognition
Metacognition
aa persons
persons knowledge
knowledge concerning
concerning his/her
his/her own
own
mental
mental processes
processes and
and the
the active
active monitoring
monitoring and
and
consequent
consequent regulation
regulation and
and orchestration
orchestration of
of
these
these processes
processes
(Flavell
(Flavell
(1978)
(1978)
 Looking at how
Students acquire Knowledge

ethical
ethical and
and intellectual
intellectual development
development
progression
progression from
from simplistic
simplistic
acceptance
acceptance ofof facts
facts through
through confusion
confusion
about
about the
the nature
nature of of knowledge
knowledge to to aa
recognition
recognition of
of need
need forfor aa personal
personal
philosophy
philosophy of
of life
life
(Perry,
(Perry, 1970)
1970)
 Looking at how
Students acquire Knowledge

Students
Students have
have different
different abilities
abilities in
in relation
relation to
to
cognitive
cognitive and
and metacognitive
metacognitive skills
skills
Appropriate
Appropriate training
training can
can help
help each
each student
student toto
develop
develop both
both cognitive
cognitive and
and metacognitive
metacognitive skills
skills
More
More highly
highly developed
developed cognitive
cognitive and and
metacognitive
metacognitive abilities
abilities will
will result
result in
in better
better
learning
learning and
and more
more competent
competent application
application ofof
knowledge
knowledge
Application to Student Learning

Students
Students need:
need:
to
to learn
learn how
how to
to learn
learn
to
to develop
develop aa deep
deep approach
approach to
to learning
learning
to
to develop
develop thinking
thinking skills
skills
to
to develop
develop metacognitive
metacognitive skills
skills
to
to become
become more
more self-directing
self-directing in
in their
their learning
learning
Application to Student Learning

Learning
Learning how
how to
to learn
learn and
and how
how to
to think
think
can
can be
be encouraged:
encouraged:
through
through study
study skills
skills courses
courses
within
within thethe content
content area
area
-- encouragement
encouragement to to think about what
think about what
isis being
being taught
taught
-- encouragement
encouragement to to think about how
think about how
itit isis being
being learned
learned