GPS Methods
Characteristics of GPS Surveying
and GPS Navigation
Some characteristics of GPS Satellite
Surveying are:
The points being coordinated are
stationary.
GPS data are collected over some
"observation session".
Relative positioning modes of
operation, and hence high accuracies.
The measurements are made on the
L-band carrier wave, hence requiring
special instrumentation and software.
Mostly associated with the traditional
surveying and mapping functions.
Some characteristics of GPS
Satellite Navigation are:
The points being coordinated are
generally in motion.
GPS is collected for an "instant", and
the solution is obtained in real-time.
Absolute and relative positioning
modes of operation, of comparatively
low accuracy.
The measurements are typically made
on the PRN codes, and requires the
processing of pseudo-range data.
Mostly associated with defining safe
passage of ships and aircraft.

 GPS Positioning Modes

The main positioning modes for GPS surveying and navigation are (section 2.4.1):
ABSOLUTE or POINT positioning: coordinates are in relation to a well-defined
global reference system.

DIFFERENTIAL or RELATIVE positioning: coordinates are in relation to some other

fixed point. In GPS surveying this is referred to as baseline determination.

STATIC positioning: coordination of stationary points, either in absolute or relative

mode. This is generally synonymous with the SURVEYING mode of positioning,
based on the analysis of carrier phase observations.

KINEMATIC positioning: coordination of moving points, either in absolute or relative

mode. This is generally the NAVIGATION mode of positioning, based on pseudo-
range observations.

 distinctions in data processing

(minimise the effect of biases in the measurements)

Pseudo-range data is relatively "noisy Integrated carrier beat phase data is very
precise,
the significant biases are accounted for any contamination by systematic errors is
of greater concern.
In the point positioning mode, Appropriate processing techniques must t
satellite clock error is ignored, (smaller be used.
than the measurement noise) primary drawback is its range "ambiguity".
In GPS surveying the major biases are
Receiver clock error is estimated in real- accounted for in the following ways:
Differencing data collected simultaneously
time through redundant measurements, from two or more GPS receivers,
to several GPS satellites, between satellites
and between receivers.
all data is contaminated by
This eliminates, or significantly reduces, most
the same bias. of the biases.
All position results are therefore expressed
In the relative positioning mode, all relative to (fixed) datum stations.
satellite and propagation biases are The "ambiguity" bias is often estimated,
though a weaker solution can be obtained
significantly reduced. from the appropriate triple-differenced
observable (section 6.3).
In SURVEYING mode
the receivers are stationary,
data is collected over some observation period
permits the ambiguities to be reliably estimated
strong solution obtained.
There are alternative means of estimating ambiguities that permit real-time
kinematic baseline determination to be carried out as well.
 GPS Survey Solution:
fundamental unit of a GPS solution is a 3-D baseline
vector joining the antennas of two GPS receivers that
have been tracking simultaneously the same satellites.
One end of the baseline is held "fixed" (its coordinates
are assumed known), and the other station's coordinates
are determined relative to it (in effect, the baseline
components are estimated).
Solutions may be obtained from ambiguity-free or
ambiguity-fixed double-differenced data solutions, with
different resultant accuracies and reliabilities
All results refer to the antenna phase centres, and the
height of antenna and any offsets must be applied in
order to reduce the coordinates to the ground marks.
 THE NATURE OF GPS SOLUTIONS
most distinctive feature of GPS surveying:

determination of 3-D coordinates

The most convenient GPS pseudo-range solutions

coordinate system is that are single point
provided by the rectangular absolute solutions
Cartesian system. 3-D coordinates are
Cartesian components can be independently determined for
easily transformed at the result each receiver
presentation stage not as accurately determined
GPS phase processing result often used to provide apriori
in relative 3-D coordinates. values for the subsequent
phase solutions.
3-D baseline components that
are computed
a minimum of one station held
fixed in a GPS adjustment
All results relate to the GPS antenna phase centres
must be corrected to the groundmark by applying the antenna height and
eccentric station offsets.
All results are, nominally, referred to the WGS84 reference system .
 SETTING UP THE SOLUTION
initialising a triple- or double-differenced data solution
Defining the apriori groundmark coordinates,
including that for the "datum" station to be held fixed (for example, from a pseudo-range point position
solution, or a triple-difference phase solution, or a previous solution when "chaining" baselines). This
involves correctly setting up the station file (usually from the recorded field data), with information on antenna
height, etc.

Identifying the ephemeris file to be used (may be a Navigation Message file, or the Precise Ephemerides).

Any satellites to be excluded from solution (for example, because of known health problems).

Identifying the baseline to be processed, by selecting the data files to be used (generally from a database of GPS
files).

Inputting the standard deviation of the differenced observations.

If option is available for taking correlations into account, this may be exercised
.
Minimum elevation cutoff angle for data culling to low satellites.

Data selection for solution (all data or some sample rate, for example every 5th data epoch).

Tropospheric refraction model for bias may be activated, based on input met data or "standard atmosphere" values.

Dual-frequency processing options to be exercised.

Whether to attempt ambiguity resolution or not (in the case of double-differenced solution), and the test/validation
parameters associated with the alg
 Carrier phase
wavelengths of the carrier waves are very short
-- approximately 19cm for L1 and 24cm for L2
1-2% of the wavelength, this means that carrier
phase can be measured to millimetre
precision
a phase measurement is "ambiguous" as it
cannot discriminate one (either L1 or L2)
wavelength from another
time-of-transmission information for the L-band
signal cannot be imprinted onto the carrier wave
 basic phase measurement is
therefore in the range 0 to 360
TWO MEANS BY WHICH THE CARRIER WAVE CAN BE
RECOVERED FROM THE INCOMING MODULATED
SIGNAL
Reconstruct the carrier wave by removing the ranging
code and broadcast message modulations
the ranging codes (C/A and/or P code) must be known. The
extraction of the Navigation Message can then be easily
performed by reversing the process by which the bi-phase shift
key modulation was carried out in the satellite
Squaring, or otherwise processing the received signal
without using a knowledge of the ranging codes
no knowledge of the ranging codes is required. More complex
signal processing is required to make carrier phase
measurements on the L2 signal under conditions of Anti-
Spoofing
Integrated Carrier Beat Phase
Raw carrier phase measurements are generally
the by-product of all GPS receivers
cannot be used as "range" observations
because they are ambiguous, and furthermore,
the ambiguity changes continuously
It is very difficult to resolve the continuously
changing unknown ambiguity in a navigation
solution (as can be done in the case of the
receiver clock bias).
INTEGRATED CARRIER PHASE
possible to keep track of the number of
whole wavelengths of the carrier wave as
it is sampled within a phase-lock loop

fractional phase (measured as an angle in the range 0 to

360, where 360 corresponds to
about 19cm for the L1 phase and 24cm for the L2 phase
CR is the current reading on a zero-crossing "counter
only registers the number of whole cycles since lock-on when the
counter had an initial value of CRo (usually zero).
in square brackets is an integer.
The additional electronics to count the whole cycles since lock-on
is the identifying characteristic of GPS "surveying" receivers.
INTEGRATED CARRIER PHASE AND THE AMBIGUITY
TERM.

nji is the ambiguity term,

v contains all the biases and errors affecting this measurement
(f0 / c) scales range into units of cycles.
Note that nji is assumed to be constant over time, for a particular receiver-satellite
combination
To convert this phase observation into range,
the cycle ambiguity has to be determined.
If the integer nji can be correctly determined,
then the resulting "phase-range" (or "carrier-range") will be a very precise range (at
the level of a few millimetres).
Spreading and de-spreading the
spectrum of the carrier wave

spread spectrum signal is received at the GPS

antenna,
the signal power is below the background noise
the ranging code modulations are removed
the satellite signal collapses into the original very
narrow carrier frequency band
signal power is again boosted well above the
background noise
 mix a locally generated sine wave at the
same frequency as the "reconstructed"
received carrier (modulated only by the
Navigation Message),
the broadcast message can then be
extracted.
The incoming and receiver-generated sine
waves are continuously aligned within a
"phase-lock loop"
 Periodic sampling of the phase of the local
carrier provides the carrier beat phase
observable
although useful for some applications such
as the "phase smoothing" of pseudo-
ranges,
still not suitable for survey applications.
more useful carrier phase observable can be
constructed through the "integration" of carrier
phase measurements
 Measurement of carrier beat phase on L2 by this
technique requires a knowledge of the P code generating
algorithm.
Under the policy of Anti-Spoofing, the Y code is secret
and hence cannot be used in this code-correlating mode.
easiest option to use the "squaring" technique (or some
variation of it) to make L2 phase measurements.
the primary advantage of the code-correlating
approach is that it results in a far better signal-to-
noise ratio,
hence better quality measurements, than any other signal
processing technique.
Reconstructing the carrier wave and
extraction of pseudo-range data.
Extracting carrier phase from incoming GPS
signals by carrier wave squaring

.
PROCESSING OF DIFFERENCED DATA

ultimate aim to obtain an ambiguity-fixed solution

Triple- and double-differenced data solutions have different strengths and weaknesses
Triple-, double- (ambiguity-free) and double-differenced (ambiguity-fixed) solutions
represent a hierarchy of processing strategies that are generally applied in sequence:
first the triple-differenced solution,
through to the double-differenced solutions,
 The triple-differences solution
algorithm
Difference epoch data between-satellites, form double-differences.
Difference double-differences between epochs at some sample rate
(for example, every 5th observation epoch), form triple-differences.
Assume all triple-difference observations are independent when
forming Weight Matrix (no correlations taken into account), define P
matrix.
Form Observation Equations, construct the A matrix.
Accumulate Normal Equations, scaled by the Weight Matrix ATPA.
At end of data set, invert Normal Matrix and obtain geodetic
parameter solution, = (ATPA)-1.ATP .
Update parameters.
Optionally scan triple-difference residuals for cycle slips in double-
difference observables
 The double-difference solution algorithm:

Difference epoch data between-satellites, form double-differences.

Apply data reductions, such as a troposphere bias model.
Construct Weight Matrix (depending on whether correlations are to
be taken into account), define the P matrix.
Form Observation Equations --> construct the A matrix.
Accumulate Normal Equations, scaled by the Weight Matrix ATPA.
At end of session, invert Normal Matrix and obtain geodetic and
ambiguity parameter solution, = (ATPA)-1.ATP .
Update parameters.
Decide (a) iterate solution, or (b) iterate solution only after
ambiguity resolution attempted
 AMBIGUITY RESOLUTION

What is ambiguity resolution?

The mathematical process of converting
ambiguous ranges (integrated carrier phase)
to unambiguous ranges of millimetre
measurement precision ...
For conventional GPS surveying,
corresponds to converting real-valued
ambiguity parameter values to the likeliest
integer values
 AMBIGUITY RESOLUTION

determining the value of this unknown

initial (integer) ambiguity is an important
task of GPS data reduction software
only possible after all biases are
eliminated or otherwise accounted for to
better than one cycle (20cm wavelength
on L1
 The ambiguity-fixed solution algorithm:

Difference epoch data between-satellites, form double-differences

as before but without ambiguities as solve-for parameters.
Apply data reductions, such as a troposphere bias model.
Construct Weight Matrix (depending on whether correlations are to
be taken into account), define the P matrix.
Form Observation Equations, construct the A matrix.
Accumulate Normal Equations, scaled by the Weight Matrix ATPA.
At end of session, invert Normal Matrix and obtain geodetic
parameter solution, = (ATPA)-1.ATP .
Update parameters.
This process can be iterated to resolve other ambiguities until (a) all
have been resolved (and "fixed" to integers), or (b) no more can be
reliably resolved.
Change in quality of baseline components in an ambiguity-
free compared to an ambiguity-fixed solution

phase data collected

beyond the minimum
necessary to ensure an
ambiguity-fixed solution
is obtained has almost no
influence on the final
results

sequential transition from an 100% ambiguity-free solution to

an 100% ambiguity-fixed solution
 Ambiguity Resolution
In region A the precision (and accuracy) of the coordinates steadily
improves as more data is collected.
As soon as sufficient data is available to resolve the ambiguities (at
epoch 15) a dramatic improvement in the coordinate parameter
precisions is evident.
In region B, when the unambiguous range data (based on precise
phase measurements now converted to precise range observations)
are processed, there is no improvement in the quality of the
coordinate solution, and in effect there is no real justification for
continuing to collect data past epoch 15.
If enough data is collected over an observation session, the
precision of the ambiguity-free baseline solution will steadily
improve, converging to that obtained from an ambiguity-fixed
solution.

 Ambiguity Resolution
conventional static GPS surveying the
data is post-processed and it is therefore
not known apriori at what point (or even if)
sufficient data has been collected to
ensure an ambiguity-fixed solution is
obtained. Hence conservative observation
session lengths (not less than 30 minutes,
and usually 60 minutes) are
recommended
address the following questions
How can the length of the observation span required to ensure
ambiguity resolution be made significantly shorter than for the case
of conventional GPS surveying?
Are there any "tricks" to improving ambiguity resolution efficiency,
particularly when observation sessions are short?
How can ambiguity resolution be made more reliable, particularly
when observation sessions are short?
How can positioning using phase data be best carried out after
ambiguities have been resolved? That is, how to minimise the
number of times ambiguity resolution must be carried out?
How can the ambiguity resolution procedure be made so
"transparent" that it may be carried out automatically, even with the
receiver in motion, and whenever it is required?
 several modern GPS surveying
techniques
Rapid static positioning techniques.
Reoccupation techniques.
"Stop &Go"techniques.
Kinematic positioning techniques
 Kinematic Procedures:
when the entire process of ambiguity
resolution (or initialisation) and "carrier-
range" positioning takes place while the
antenna is in motion.
Otherwise it is identical to the "stop & go"
procedure.
 Rapid Static Procedure:
employs a sophisticated ambiguity search procedure to
test many sets of candidate ambiguity sets and select
the (most likely) correct one, using only a small amount
of data. (Hence this method strives to narrow the width
of region A in figure above, and to predict the point at
which ambiguity resolution occurs with high reliability.) If
the ambiguity search procedure fails, the technique gives
poor baseline results because there is insufficient data to
obtain a good quality ambiguity-free solution. The
method can only be applied on static baselines.
 RAPID STATIC GPS SURVEYING
Static positioning with short observation times of 5-20 minutes (vs

1-2 hours) ... giving centimetre accuracies

fast-static or quick-static
Observation time requirements: These are significantly shorter than for
conventional GPS surveying, and are a function of baseline length, number
of satellites being tracked and satellite geometry. Typically the receivers
need only occupy a baseline for a period of 5-20 minutes (the lower value
corresponding to baselines <5km and tracking six or more satellites; the
upper value for longer baselines up to 20km, and/or where tracking is to
only four satellites ).
 Hardware requirements
Different GPS "products" have different hardware requirements.
In some systems only dual-frequency phase measurement is sufficient,
in system configurations dual-frequency pseudo-range measurements are also required.
To date there is no "mixing" of receivers and software as in the case of conventional GPS
surveying.
The exact configuration is of course dependent on the software being used.
For example, if the software for rapid static is quite sophisticated then there is less
reliance on specialised top-of-the-line hardware.
(For example, rapid static results have been obtained with single frequency phase
data.)
for other rapid static "products", full four observable instrumentation (L1 & L2 phase,
P1 and P2 pseudo-range; or L1 & L2 phase, C/A pseudo-range and P1-P2
observable) is a prerequisite.

Specialised software: The basis of this technique is the ability of the software to
resolve the ambiguities (determine their integer values) using a very short
observation period. There is a variety of software, with different characteristics and
levels of sophistication, but the fundamental requirement is a fast ambiguity
resolution capability.

 field procedures are much like those for
conventional static GPS surveying

occupation times are shorter, the baselines

should be comparatively short, the satellite
geometry favourable and signal disturbances
such as multipath should be a minimum
not possible to define exactly how much data
needs to be collected in order to produce quality
baselines every time, and with high reliability !!?
If the real-time mode is employed (the base
station transmits tracking data to the mobile unit
where it is processed immediately) then the
"data quantity gamble" for rapid static GPS
surveying can be overcome
 Such a technique is well suited for short
range applications such as control
densification and engineering surveys, or
any job where many points need to be
surveyed (see Figure below). Unlike the
"kinematic" and "stop & go" techniques
there is no need to maintain lock on the
satellites when moving from one station
setup to another
Field procedure for the "rapid
static" surveying technique.
 REOCCUPATION GPS SURVEYING
TECHNIQUES
Centimetre positioning accuracy with two occupations per site,

each for a short static observation period (few minutes) ...

This technique exploits changes in satellite geometry across conventional observation sessions.
Phase data from two short sessions of just a few minutes in length (perhaps up to 10 minutes),
collected about one hour apart is sufficient to ensure a good quality ambiguity-free solution.
The roving receiver must revisit the same point one or more hours later
Two separate sets of ambiguities must be estimated, one for the first session, the other
for the second session. It is not necessary for the same constellation of satellites to be
observed for both sessions.

It is the technique that fits somewhere between conventional static and "kinematic" techniques in
terms of productivity.

It is faster than conventional static, but it is not as accurate, if only an ambiguity-free solution is
usually obtained. An ambiguity-fixed solution, if obtained, is more accuracte.

It is an alternative to the "rapid static" technique, no faster but also not as accurate unless
ambiguities are resolved (in which case it is identical to the "rapid static" technique).

It is more flexible than the "stop & go" or "kinematic" techniques as it does not require that
satellites be tracked while the receiver is being moved from site to site.

 STOP & GO" GPS SURVEYING TECHNIQUES

Centimetre accuracy positioning during very short static observation

periods (<1minute) ... receiver moves carefully from point to point

This is a true kinematic technique because the receiver continues to track
satellites while it is in motion. It is known as the "stop & go" (or semi-
kinematic) technique because the coordinates of the receiver are only of
interest when it is stationary (the "stop" part), but the receiver continues to
function while it is being moved (the "go" part) from one stationary setup to
the next.
 STOP & GO" GPS SURVEYING TECHNIQUES

The initial ambiguity resolution: This is carried out (generally in static mode) before
the "stop & go" survey commences. The determination of the ambiguities can be
carried out using any method, but in general it is one of the following:
A conventional static (or "rapid static") GPS survey determines the baseline from a
fixed receiver to the first of the uncoordinated sites occupied by the second "roving"
receiver. An ambiguity-fixed solution provides the integer values of the ambiguities.
Setup both receivers over a known baseline, possibly surveyed previously by GPS.
Employ a procedure known as "antenna swap". Two tripods are setup a few metres
apart, each with an antenna on them (the exact baseline length need not be known).
Data is collected by each receiver for a few minutes (tracking the same satellites).
The antennas are then carefully lifted from the tripods and swapped, that is, the
receiver 1 antenna is placed where the receiver 2 antenna had been, and visa versa
(see Figure below). After a few more minutes the antennas are swapped again
(Figure 1).
The most versatile, and most recent, technique is to resolve the ambiguities "on-the-
fly" (that is, while the receiver is turned on but the receiver/antenna is moving).
 STOP & GO" GPS SURVEYING
TECHNIQUES
The receiver in motion: Once the ambiguities have been determined the survey can
begin. The roving receiver is moved from site to site, collecting just a few minutes of
phase data. It is very important that the antenna continues to track the satellites. In
this way the resolved ambiguities are valid for all future phase observations, in effect
converting the ambiguous carrier phase data to unambiguous "carrier-range" or
"phase-range" data (by applying the integer ambiguities as data corrections). As soon
as the signals are disrupted (causing a cycle slip) then the ambiguities have to be
reinitialised (or recomputed). This can most easily be done by bringing the receiver
back to the last surveyed point, and redetermining the ambiguities by the "known
baseline" method.

The stationary receiver: The "carrier-range" data is then processed in the double-
differenced mode to determine the coordinates of the roving receiver relative to the
static reference receiver. The trajectory of the antenna is not of interest, only the
stationary points which are visited by the receiver.

The technique is well suited when many points close together have to be surveyed,
and the terrain poses no significant problems in terms of signal disruption (usually an
audible signal is emitted by the receiver when it has lost lock on the satellites). The
survey is carried out in the manner illustrated in the Figure 2 below, and the
ambiguities reinitialised using any of the techniques
STOP & GO" GPS SURVEYING
TECHNIQUES
An additional requirement is that the
stationary reference receiver must
continue to track all the satellites
being tracked by the roving
receiver. The accuracy attainable is
about the same as for the "rapid

static" technique. As with the

"reoccupation" technique, the
receiver must have the ability to
handle data files from several
different sites. The software then
has to sort out the recorded data for
the different sites, and to
differentiate the "kinematic" or "go"
data (not of interest) from the
"static" or "stop" data (of interest). It
can be implemented in real-time if a
communications link is provided to
transmit the "carrier-range" data

from the reference receiver to the

roving receiver(s).

One particular negative characteristics of this technique is the requirement

that phase lock must be maintained by the roving receiver as it moves from
site to site. This requires special hardware mounts on vehicles if the survey is
carried out over a large area.
 KINEMATIC GPS SURVEYING TECHNIQUES
Centimetre positioning accuracy of moving antenna

initially determining (and redetermining after a cycle slip) the ambiguities "on-
the-fly". Today the "kinematic" GPS surveying technique is undergoing tremendous
improvement and "on-the-fly" ambiguity resolution is a routine procedure (though not
yet by any means an entirely foolproof one!), making kinematic surveying techniques

ideal for road centreline surveys, hydrographic surveys, airborne applications, etc .
 trends in "kinematic" surveying
There is a blurring of the distinction between "kinematic GPS surveying" and
"kinematic GPS navigation". The former is carrier phase based (actually "carrier-
range" data), whereas the latter has usually been taken to refer to pseudo-range
based positioning. However, nowadays more navigation instruments are using
"carrier phase smoothed pseudo-ranges" (section 6.4.11). However, it is still valid to
distinguish these techniques as "decimetre accuracy positioning" on the one hand,
and "submetre accuracy positioning" on the other hand.
There is trend to using a combination of both phase and pseudo-range data within the
positioning algorithm itself, precise C/A code ranges as well as P code pseudo-
ranges.
There is an increasing sophistication of the algorithms, for example, incorporating
Kalman filters.
There are techniques based on single frequency data, as well as those top-of-the-line
procedures requiring dual-frequency data.
"On-the-fly" ambiguity resolution techniques will probably all other "kinematic"
techniques (and possibly the "rapid static" and "reoccupation" techniques as well).
Real-time operation ("real-time kinematic" -- RTK) is increasingly popular as it offers
considerable advantages in that the results are available immediately, in the field, but
it is still a challenge and operates under a number of significant constraints.

 ISSUES RELATING TO MODERN GPS SURVEYING

CONVENTIONAL (STATIC) GPS SURVEYING:

Advantages
Highest accuracy
Robust technique
Ambiguity resolution not critical
Minor impact of orbit error and multipath
Undemanding of hardware and software
Disadvantages
Long observation sessions
Inappropriate for engineering and cadastral applicatio
 MODERN GPS SURVEYING
:
Advantages
Higher accuracy than pseudo-range solutions
Appropriate for many survey applications
High productivity
Similar procedures to modern terrestrial surveying
Disadvantages
Special hardware and software
Susceptible to orbit, atmospheric multi-path disturbances
Higher capital costs
Ambiguity-fixed or continuous lock required
Two negative characteristics of these modern GPS techniques are:
They are susceptible to multipath disturbance to an axtent (affecting the receiver
signals during both the kinematic and static stages of the tracking) than the
conventional static technique. Multipath during the ambiguity resolution period is
especially dangerous, as wrong ambiguities may result.

The results from short observation sessions are more sensitive to bad satellite
geometry (large GDOP) than the conventional static techniq
Combining conventional GPS and
modern GPS survey techniques.
 All static
Observation 1010-1111
45 min
Move from 1010 to 2222(setup)13 min
Observation 1111-2222
45 min
Move from 1111 to 3333(setup)16 min
Observation 2222 to 3333
45 min
Move from 2222 to 4444(setup)14 min
Observation 3333-4444
45 min
Move from 3333 to 1010(setup)16 min
Observation 1010-4444
45 min
 Static and stop/go
Observation 1010,1111,1011
45 min
Move time and setup
23 min
Observation 1111,2222,3333
45 min
Move time and setup
16 min
Observation 4444,3333,1011
45 min
Move time and setup
22 min
Observation 1010,4444,2222
45 min
241
 Mixed mode- 2 references
79 minutes -19 minutes
(last re-observation
of station 1111) =

68 minutes

Checks: Repeatability.
Allows for Free Least
Square Adjustment.
variety of combinations of several modern GPS
surveying techniques which are possible
 Considerations
Being able to determine baselines faster than using conventional GPS
surveying does not, in its self, mean that the network planning and design
guidelines discussed in must be changed. However the following issues
should nevertheless be addressed:
As the accuracies attainable are lower than for conventional GPS surveying,
the GPS survey "standards & specifications" may be relaxed.
The high speed of survey would suggest that the most appropriate mode of
receiver deployment is the "base station" or "radiation" mode (Figure 2
above). However, this provides no redundancy because every point is fixed
by a "no check" vector.
It is possible to ensure redundancy by deploying two base stations (Figure 4
below). Each roving receiver point is connected by two vectors (useful if one
base receiver malfunctions!). But because the rover site is occupied only
once (except when the "reoccupation" technique is being used), then the
vectors are still of the "no check" variety as there is no way of knowing if the
height of antenna has been measured correctly, or even if the correct station
was occupied!
 Considerations
Productivity improves as more GPS receivers are deployed, but the
logistics also become more complex. An example of a "hybrid"
scenario involving two base receivers, and two roving receivers is
illustrated in Figure 4.
It has been found that even though the resolved ambiguities (for
example, using OTF techniques) are NOT correct, the relative
positions between the surveyed points may be correct (though the
position relative to the base receiver is INCORRECT).
Because the modern GPS surveying techniques are likely to be
used for land applications which were not addressed by
conventional static GPS surveying (for example, cadastral surveys),
new recommended specifications may have to be developed for
fixed control placement, redundancy, ties to control, calibration,
heighting procedures, and other network considerations.

A multi-receiver deployment scenario for modern GPS

surveying.
Field procedure for the "reoccupation" surveying
technique.
 Reoccupation Procedure
simulates a long observation session via two short
observation sessions over the same baseline
separated in time by an hour or more. (It is not the length of the
observation session but the change in satellite-baseline
geometry over a session that is important for ambiguity
resolution,
the data can be "thinned" during the middle of the session, or
deleted entirely!)
shares some of the advantages of conventional (long
observation session) GPS surveying in that ambiguity resolution
is optional.
Good quality baseline results can be obtained from an
ambiguity-free solution.
Obviously the method can only be employed on static baselines.
 "Stop & Go" Procedure :
combination of
static positioning (the "stop" part),
kinematic movement of the antenna (the "go" part).
ambiguities must be determined by some initialisation process
all positioning takes place with carrier-range observations (that
is, within region B of prior figure above).
There are several methods of ambiguity resolution,
including standard static baseline determination,
observing a known baseline,
"antenna swap" method,
determination of ambiguities "on-the-fly" (that is, as the antenna
moves).
Such ambiguity resolution (or initialisation) takes place at the start of the
survey (before moving to the first point to be surveyed), and at any
time loss-of-lock occurs.
 Triple-Differenced Phase Solution

The functional model for the solution contains only coordinate parameters (the
ambiguity and clock phase errors were eliminated during differencing).
Triple-difference solutions are "robust", being relatively immune to the effect of
cycle slips in the data, which have the characteristics of "spikes"
This low susceptibility to data that is not free from cycle slips is due to the
correlations in the differenced data not being taken into account (assume a
diagonal Weight Matrix P).
The algorithm used to construct the triple-differenced observables is ideally
suited for detecting and repairing cycle slips in the double-differenced data.
Hence these solutions are generally carried out as part of the overall data
cleaning (pre-)process
An automatic procedure would be based on scanning the residuals of the triple-
difference solution for those close to an integer value of one or more cycles.
Relatively simple algorithm that can easily handle a changing satellite
constellation.
The triple-difference solution provides good apriori values for the baseline
components.
Under extreme circumstances the triple-difference solution may be the only one
that is reliable
 Double-Differenced Phase Solution (Ambiguity Free)

The functional model for the solution is containing both coordinate parameters and
ambiguity parameters (the exact form depending upon the ambiguity parameter model
used).
Double-difference solutions are vulnerable to cycle slips in the (double-differenced) data.
The solution can be quite sensitive to a number of internal software factors such as:
between-satellite differencing strategy (see below),
data rejection criteria,
whether correlations are taken into account during differencing (see below),
whether the observation time-tags are in the GPS Time system.
The solution is also sensitive to such external factors as:
length of observation session,
receiver-satellite geometry (including the number of simultaneously tracked
satellites),
residual biases in the double-differenced data due to such things as atmospheric
disturbances, multipath, etc.,
the length of the baseline.
Only the independent epoch double-differences are constructed: (S-1) double-differences
per baseline per epoch, where S is the number of satellites tracked.
The algorithm used to construct the independent double-differenced observables must
take into account the situations such as the rising and setting of a satellite during an
observation session (and the appropriate definition of the ambiguity parameters in such a
case).
Double-Differenced Phase Solution (Ambiguity-
Fixed)

Characteristics of double-differenced phase (ambiguity-fixed) solutions:

The functional model for the solution contain coordinate parameters and any unresolved ambiguity
parameters (or none if all ambiguities have been resolved to their integer values).
As ambiguities are resolved the (integer) value of the ambiguity becomes part of the apriori known
information, and this has the effect of converting ambiguous phase observations into unambiguous range
observations.
Double-difference solution is comparatively strong (there are less parameters to estimate!), but is
reliable only if the correct integer values of the ambiguities have been identified.
The solution can be quite sensitive to the strategy used to resolve the ambiguities, for example:
whether all ambiguities are to be resolved as a set, or only a subset,
the resolution criteria used for decision making,
the search strategy used for integer values.
The ambiguity resolution process is also sensitive to such external factors as:
length of observation session,
receiver-satellite geometry,
residual biases in the double-differences due to such things as atmospheric disturbances, multipath, etc.,
whether satellites rise or set during the session,
the length of the baseline.
 quality of the baseline vector
solution
length of the (common) observing session

the number of satellites tracked by the receivers

the quality of the data (multipath and cycle slips, single or dual-
frequency data, presence of noise and other biases)

the type of baseline solution: triple-difference, double-difference, etc.

the software used to reduce the data.

This network solution may then be constrained and transformed into

the local geodetic datum if sufficient geodetic control stations (with
coordinates in the local datum) are also surveyed as well
GPS vs Conventional Terrestrial
Surveying -- ADVANTAGES:
Intervisibility not required
Operations are weather independent
Network independent site selection, hence
sites placed where needed
Around-the-clock operation
Economic advantages from greater
efficiency and speed of survey
Geodetic accuracies easily achieved
3-D coordinates are obtained
 GPS vs Conventional Terrestrial
Surveying -- DISADVANTAGES
High productivity places greater demand on survey planning
and logistical considerations
No sky obstructions can be tolerated, therefore cannot be
used underground, under foliage or structures
GPS surveying is generally "targeted" to satisfy a specific
survey need
No azimuth control for subsequent non-GPS surveys
Horizontal and vertical coordinates from GPS must be
transformed if they are to be useful for conventional survey
applications
GPS accuracies are generally higher than the surrounding
existing control
High capital cost of GPS instrumentation
New skills needed
 Least Squares Solutions in GPS
Surveying
The following stages in GPS phase data processing require some form of Least Squares adjustment:

Point-position solutions using pseudo-range data to obtain preliminary WGS84 coordinates and
approximate receiver clock error estimates (for the correction of observation time-tags at the microsecond
level

Triple-difference carrier phase solution using phase data obtained by differencing the double-differences
between successive epochs.
As ambiguity parameters are eliminated, such a solution can give good apriori coordinates, but is
not recommended for precise GPS phase data processing.

Perhaps some form of (polynomial) curve-fitting to observation residuals to permit cycle slip detection and
repair during phase data pre-processing.

Double-differenced phase data solutions estimating both the station coordinates and the ambiguity
parameters (as real-valued quantities).

Solutions that combine all GPS baseline results into a single campaign adjustment (without processing all
the raw double-differenced data, as above, in a single step solution).

Solutions to integrate the GPS results into a conventional geodetic network, involving the distortion of the
minimally constrained GPS network to fit the surrounding control network.

Determination of the transformation parameters between the GPS datum and the local geodetic datum.