By:

AHMED SOHAIB

1
 Contents

Important Concepts
Gas Compression
Classification of Compressors
Positive Displacement Compressors
Reciprocating Compressors
Principles of PD Compressors
Types of PD Compressors
Pressure-Volume Diagram
2
 Contents
Compressor Capacity Control by:
Throttling
Capacity Pocket
Unloading
Speed Control
Recycle / Bypass Control
Cylinders Jacket Cooling Methods
Cylinders & Bearings Lubrication
Operation of Reciprocating Compressor
Case Study of K-211 & K-101A
3
Important
Concepts

4
 Introduction to Compression
The purpose of Compressors is to move gases
from one place to other place.
Fans
Move air or gas at a sufficient pressure to
overcome static forces. Discharge
pressure range from a few inches of
water to about 1 psi.
Blowers
Move large volume of air or gas at pressure
up to 50 psi.
5
 Introduction to Compression
Compressors

Move air or gas in higher differential

pressure ranges from 35 psi to as high
as 65,000 psi in extreme cases.

6
 Purpose of Compression
In chemical process industry some reaction
take place at certain pressure and temperature
condition.
Compression of gases to liquefy for storage
purpose.
Compression and subsequent expansion of
gases for the purpose of cooling.
Pressurized air is used for measuring and
control system.
7
 Compression

Molecules always travel at high speed, they strike

against walls of enclosed vessel and produce
pressure.
Temperature affects average molecules speed.
When heat is added in fixed volume of gas, the
molecule travel faster, and hit the containing
walls of vessel more often and with greater force.
If the enclosed vessel is fitted with a piston so that
the gas can squeezed into smaller space, the
molecule travel is now restricted and pressure
increased. 8
Confined Gas before and after heating

9
Volume Reduces and Pressure Increases

10
 What is a compressor ?

Before further discussion, it will be helpful

to consider some key terms and basic gas
laws and how they effect compressors.

11
 Definition of Terms-Flow
CAPACITY (Actual Flow) of a compressor
It is the volume rate of flow of gas compressed and
delivered referred to conditions of pressure, temperature
and gas composition prevailing at the compressor inlet.

STANDARD or NORMAL FLOW

It is the rate of flow under certain standard conditions,
for example 60 deg F and 30Hg (US Standard) or
0 deg C and 1.01325 bar (SI Normal).

MASS FLOW
It is the rate of flow in mass units.

12
 Gas and vapor
Gas is a state of matter above its Critical
Condition and cant be liquefy by applying
pressure.
All gases can be liquefied under specific
temperature and pressure conditions there for
they can also be called as vapor.
There is one temperature above which a gas
will not liquefy with pressure increase is
critical temperature.

13
 CRITICAL CONDITIONS
The pressure require to compress and
condense a gas at this critical temperature is
critical pressure.
Critical Condition of Water.
Tc = 374.14C
Pc = 220.48 bar, 3206 lb/inch2
Vc = 0.003155 m3/kg

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15
16
 GAS LAWS
Boyles Law
Charles Law
Amontons Law
Daltons law
Amagats Law
Avogadros Law
Ideal Gas Equation

17
 Boyles Law
Pressure is inversely proportional to the volume
at constant temperature.
PV = Constant

18
 Charles & Gay Lussac Law
In 1810 Charles and J. Gay Lussac,
experimentally determined that at low pressure
the volume of a gas is proportional to its
temperature.
V / T = Constant

19
 Amontons Law
At constant volume, the pressure of an ideal gas
varies directly with absolute temperature
P2/P1= T2/T1 V= constant

20
 Daltons law
Total pressure of a mixture of ideal gases is equal
to the sum of partial pressure of the constituent
gases
Partial pressure is the pressure each gas will
exert if it alone occupied the volume of the
mixture at the mixture temperature
P = Pa + Pb + Pc + Pd + ..

21
 Amagats Law
Total volume of a mixture of ideal gases is
equal to the sum of partial volume of the
constituent gases
Partial volume is the volume each gas will
occupy if it alone is under same pressure
temperature condition of mixture
V = Va + Vb + Vc + Vd + ..

22
 Avogadros Law
Avogadro states that equal volumes of all
gases, under the same conditions of pressure
and temperature, contain the same number of
molecules.

23
 Ideal Gas Equations
Any equation that relates the pressure,
temperature and specific volume of a substance is
called an equation of state.
The simplest and best known equation of state for
substances in the gas phase is Ideal Gas equation.
This equation predicts the P-V-T behavior of gas
quite accurately
P1V1/T1 = P2V2/T2
PV = RT

24
Deviation from Ideal Gas Behavior
Practically it was observed that gases follow
the ideal gas behavior under certain
conditions.

At low pressure
At high temperature.
Low density gases

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 Compressibility
Gases deviate from ideal gas behavior
significantly at states near the saturation
region and the critical point:
This deviation from ideal-gas behavior at a
given temperature and pressure can accurately
be accounted for by the introduction of
correction factor called the compressibility
factor Z.

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 Gas
Compression

27
 Compressor
A machine that does work to increase gas
pressure
A compressor takes in gas at a certain
pressure and discharges it at a higher pressure
The difference between suction and discharge
pressure represents the work done on the gas
by the compressor

28
 Compression Ratio
The ratio of absolute discharge pressure to the
absolute suction pressure
R = Absolute discharge pressure
Absolute suction pressure
If compressor doubles absolute discharge
pressure, R is 2
R per stage is generally limited to 4, although low
capacity compressors may operate with value of 8
or higher.
Maximum R is determined by the maximum
allowable discharge gas temperature.
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Pressure Ratio

30
 Heat Of Compression
A compressor forces gas molecules close together ,
increasing their speed and collisions, thus increases
gas temperature.
The temperature increase depends upon nature of
gas, suction temperature, pressure and ratio of
compression.
Increasing R increases temperature of the discharge
gas

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 Types Of Compression
Isothermal
Adiabatic

Polytropic

Isothermal Compression
It occurs when the temperature is kept
constant as the pressure increases. This requires
continuous removal of the heat of compression.
p1V1 = p2V2 = constant

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 Types Of Compression
Adiabatic (Isentropic) Compression
It is obtained when there is no heat added to
or removed from the gas during compression.
p1V1k = p2V2k

k = Ratio of specific heats

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 Types Of Compression
Polytropic Compression
Compression is neither isothermal nor adiabatic.
Actual compression therefore takes place along a
polytropic cycle.
p1V1n = p2V2n

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 Types Of Compression
Gas Exit Temperature
When the pressure on a compressible fluid is
increased adiabatically, the temperature of the
fluid also increases.
For isentropic pressure change of an ideal gas,
the relation is:

35
 Types Of Compression
(1)
Tb pb
Ta pa

For a given gas, the temperature ratio

increases with increase in compression ratio
pb / pa
This ratio is a basic parameter in the
engineering of compressors.
With increase in compression ratio, the
isentropic temperature becomes excessive.
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 Types Of Compression
Since actual compressors are not frictionless, the
heat from friction is also absorbed by the gas,
and the temperatures well above the isentropic
temperatures are obtained.
Therefore cold water or refrigerant is circulated
through jackets for cooling.
In small cooled compressors, the exit gas
temperature may approach that at the inlet, and
Isothermal compression is achieved.
In very small ones, air cooling by external fins
cast integrally with the cylinder is sufficient.
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 Types Of Compression
In larger units, where cooling capacity is
limited, a path different from isothermal or
adiabatic compression, called Polytropic
compression, is followed.

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 Intercooling
When the pressure on a compressible fluid is
increased adiabatically, the temperature of the
fluid also increases.
Intercoolers are used to remove heat of
compression from gas

39
 Intercooling
The temperature rise of the gas has a number of
disadvantages.
Because the specific volume of the fluid increases
with temperature, the work required to compress a
pound of fluid is larger than if the compression were
isothermal.
Excessive temperatures lead to problems with
lubricant, stuffing boxes, and materials of
construction.
The fluid may be one that cannot tolerate high
temperatures without decomposing.
40
 Application of Partial Pressure in
case of compression
Partial pressure is used to determine the
moisture removed in intercooler and after
cooler.
The practical application of partial pressure
in compression problem is the determination
of mixture volume or weight to be handled at
the intake of the each stage of compression

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 Classification of compressors
COMPRESSOR

INTERMITTENT FLOW CONTINOUS FLOW

POSTIVE DISPLACEMNT DYNAMIC EJECTOR

ROTARY RECIPROCATING RADIAL MIXED AXIAL

FLOW FLOW FLOW

SLIDING VANE MECHANICAL

LIQUID PISTON PISTON CENTRIFUGAL MIXED AXIAL
HELICAL LOBE FLOW
SCREW LOBED
BLOWER 42
Positive Displacement
Compressors

43
 Positive Displacement Compressors
Operates by volumetric displacement
Most Positive displacement compressors operate
with reciprocating motion
Some Positive displacement compressors use
rotary motion
Rotary for lower compression ratio and large
volumes comparatively
Un-like the reciprocating machines the rotary
machine do not have high vibration problem
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 Principles
of
Positive Displacement
Compressors

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 Principles Of Positive Displacement
Compressors

Pressure increases when a gas is forced to occupy

a smaller volume, this is the principle of a PD
compressor
PD compressor first traps a certain volume of gas
in a cylinder or casing.
Then the gas is displaced into a smaller volume
The greater the reduction in volume, the greater
the increase in pressure

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Principles Of Positive Displacement
Compressors

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Principles Of Positive Displacement
Compressors
In a rotary
compressor or
blower the part
that displaces
the gas, rotates.

48
Principles Of Positive Displacement
Compressors
Gas is displaced with back-and-forth or up
and down movement in a reciprocating
compressor
Both rotary and reciprocating compressors
operate by first trapping a certain volume of
gas and then compressing the gas into a
smaller volume.

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 Types
of
Positive Displacement
Compressors

50
Reciprocating
Compressors

51
 Reciprocating Compressors
Used for high pressure head and low flow.
Single stage or multistage.
No. of stages determined by the required pressure
ratio
Maximum compression ratio is determined by the
maximum allowable discharge gas temperature
These machines are single acting or double acting
depending on the size of machine or number of
stages.
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 Reciprocating Compressors
Compressors with horizontal cylinders are most
commonly used because of their accessibility
Machines are also built with vertical cylinders and
other arrangements. Such as right angle , one
horizontal and one vertical cylinder and v-angle
Inter coolers are provided between stages for
multistage compressors & reduces the power
required for compression and keeps the
temperature with in safe operating limits

53
 The Reciprocating Compressor
In a reciprocating compressor, a volume of gas is
drawn into a cylinder

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 The Reciprocating Compressor
The gas is trapped inside the cylinder
The gas is compressed when the piston forces it to
a smaller volume

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 The Reciprocating Compressor
Compressed gas is discharged into the discharge
line
The flow of gas through the cylinder is controlled
by the cylinder valves

56
 The Reciprocating Compressor
Cylinder valves act as check valves, they permit
gas flow in only one direction
The valves open due to pressure difference

57
 The Reciprocating Compressor
For the valve to open, the pressure in the suction line
must be higher than the pressure of the gas inside
the cylinder
When pressures across the valve are equal, the valve
seats & prevents backflow
Suction valve opens when cylinder pressure is lower
than the pressure in suction line
Discharge valve opens when cylinder pressure is
higher than the pressure of gas in discharge line

58
 Single-Acting Compressor
If gas is discharged on only the forward stroke
or only the back stroke, the compressor is called
single-acting.
One forward stroke and one back stroke
completes one revolution
Forward stroke is the compression stroke
The back stroke is the intake stroke

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 Double-Acting Compressor

In a double-acting
compressor, gas is
compressed on both
sides of compressor
Two discharge strokes
per revolution

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 Double-Acting Compressor
On a forward stroke, the piston compresses gas at
the head end of the cylinder and traps the gas at its
crank end

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 Double-Acting Compressor
On the back stroke, gas is compressed into the
crank end, and a fresh charge of gas is being
drawn into the head end

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Reciprocating Compressor
Mechanical Parts

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64
Pressure-Volume
Diagram

65
 Compressor Output
Performance of a compressor can be represented
by a Pressure-Volume (P-V) diagram

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 P-V Diagram
The diagram indicates the relation between
pressure in the compressor and cylinder volume
As the piston moves back and forth in the cylinder,
the volume of cylinder changes
Horizontal lines show the volume changes
Vertical lines represents the changes in pressure of
the gas

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 P-V Diagram
The Start of a Stroke Cycle
The pressure in the clearance space is equal to
the discharge pressure

68
 P-V Diagram
The Start of Back Stroke

69
 P-V Diagram
The End of Back Stroke

70
 P-V Diagram
The Forward Stroke

71
 P-V Diagram
Complete Stroke Cycle

72
 Cylinder Clearance
&
Volumetric Efficiency

73
 Cylinder Clearance & Volumetric
Efficiency
Cylinder Clearance cannot be completely
eliminated.
When a piston has completed the compression
and delivery stroke and is ready to reverse its
movement, gas at discharge pressure is trapped
in the clearance space. This gas expands on the
return stroke until its pressure is sufficiently
below intake pressure to open the suction valves.

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75
 Cylinder Clearance & Volumetric
Efficiency
Volumetric Efficiency decreases as:
The clearance increases

The compression ratio increases

76
 Compressor
Capacity Control

77
 Compressor Capacity Control
Compressor Capacity Control by:
Throttling
Capacity Pocket
Unloading
Speed Control
Recycle / Bypass

78
 Suction Throttling
Capacity or rate of flow through the compressor
can be changed by suction line throttling
Throttling is partial closing or pinching of a valve
at compressor suction line
Less gas enters the compressor
Throttling reduces suction pressure so gas density
also reduces helping in reduction of mass flow.
Throttling reduces suction pressure without
changing discharge pressure
Throttling always increase compression ratio R.
79
 Suction Throttling

Increase in R tends to increase compressor HP

requirements
Since throttling always increase R so it always
tends to increase temperature of discharge gas

80
Suction Throttling

81
 Control By Clearance Block
At the end of every stroke some gas is left in a
clearance space in the cylinder
It includes the space between the valves plus the
space that exists between the piston and cylinder
at the end of a stroke
As the clearance increases capacity of a
compressor decreases
Capacity can be controlled by varying clearance
in the compressor

82
Control By Clearance Block

83
Fixed-Volume Clearance Pocket

84
Hand Operated Fixed-Volume
Clearance Pocket

85
Flanged Clearance Pocket

86
Variable Volume Clearance Pocket

87
 Suction Valve Unloading
In normal operation when compression stroke
begins the suction valve is full close
If a suction valve disc is held open, the gas will
flow back through the open valve into the suction
gas jacket
No gas will be discharged from the cylinder,
compressor is said to be unloaded

88
Manual Unloader

89
 Automatic Unloader
Automatic unloaders
may be controlled by
suction or discharge
pressures
Spring loaded
diaphragm may be used

90
 Control of Speed
One way to change compressor capacity is to
change the speed of the compressor
Reduction of compressor driver speed reduces
fuel consumption and operating costs of the
machine.
On engine driven compressor driver speed
control is an efficient method of controlling
capacity
Driver speed can be regulated automatically
91
Control of Speed

92
 Control of Speed
Automatic controller regulates the engine speed
by controlling the engines throttle
If the pressure in the discharge line drops the
throttle controller speed up
A controller rate by automatically adjusting the
speed of the driver
The controller maintains either a constant
pressure or a constant flow rate in the discharge
line of the compressor

93
 Control of Speed
Control by varying driver speed is normally
used only when the driver is an engine
Most electric motors are constant speed drivers
Turbines are high speed drivers
Most reciprocating compressors run at slow to
moderate speeds

94
 Control of Speed
To control speed in turbine or motor driven
compressors gears and belts are used

95
Cooling Arrangements
For
Cylinders Jacketing

96
 Cylinder Jacket Cooling
During compression cycle, cylinders generate
considerable amount of heat.
The heat comes from the work of compression
plus the friction of the piston rings against the
cylinder wall.
Unless some of this heat is dissipated,
undesirably high operating temperatures will
occur.

97
 Cylinder Jacket Cooling
Advantages of Cylinder Jacket Cooling
Reduces losses in capacity and horsepower.
Longer valve life and reduced formation of
deposits.
Reduce hot spots which could cause uneven
thermal expansion and undesirable deformation
of the cylinder.
Better lubrication increases rings life and less
maintenance.

98
 Cylinder Jacket Cooling
Demerits of too much Cylinder Jacket
Cooling
Condensation will occur in the bore; thus,
washing the lubricant from the cylinders walls
will cause accelerated wear of the piston and
rider rings.
Even worse, a large quantity of condensed liquid
could collect in the inlet gas passage and be
introduced into the cylinder as a slug of liquid
resulting in broken valves and may be a broken
cylinder.
99
 Cylinder Jacket Cooling
Good Practice
To avoid this condensation problem, cylinder
coolant temperature is kept approx. 6 oC warmer
than the inlet gas temperature.

100
 Methods of Cooling

Noncooled

StaticCooling
Thermosyphon Cooling

Full Circulation Cooling

101
 Methods of Cooling
Noncooled
For cylinder operating in cryogenic service
where gas temperatures are below -60 oC, no
cooling is required.
Cylinders are designed with no cooling water
jacket.
Cylinders are simply insulated from the ambient
air to avoid severe temperature differentials or
frost formation on the cylinder exterior.

102
 Methods of Cooling
Static Cooling
Used where gas discharge temperatures are below
88 oC.
Applied where there will be no unloaded cylinder
operation that could create abnormally high
temperatures.
Cylinder water jacket is simply filled with cooling
medium such as water-glycol mixture.
No attempt is made to circulate the mixture.

A small reservoir vented to atmosphere is provided to

allow for thermal expansion.
103
 Methods of Cooling
Thermosyphon Cooling
Used where discharge temperatures are moderate ( 88
to 90oC)
Applied where there will be no extended period of
fully unloaded operation that could increase operating
temperature.
Similar to static cooling; however, there is a small
section of pipe connecting top cooling medium outlet
to the bottom of the cylinder.
Warm water in the radiative sections cools, it will flow
to the bottom of cylinder, creating slight circulation
through the cylinder jackets.
104
105
 Methods of Cooling
Full Circulation Cooling
Used where gas discharge and mean temperatures are
above mentioned previous ranges.
Applied where there will be extended period of fully
unloaded operation that could increase operating
temperature.
The coolant temperature must be 6oC above the inlet
gas temperature.
Flow through the cylinder is controlled by throttling
coolant outlet to ensure that cylinder is flooded.

106
 Methods of Cooling
Thermometer and sight flow indicator are
located immediately upstream of the discharge
globe valve for adjustment coolant flow.

107
 Methods of Cooling
Advantages :
Higher volumetric flow rate

Required for heat of compression and the friction of

the piston rings against the cylinder wall removal
Power reduction

Parts longer life.

Reduces hot spot which could cause uneven

thermal expansion.
Better lubrication

Extended ring life

Less maintenance
108
 Lubrication
Arrangements
For
Crankcase - Bearings

109
110
 Lubrication
Arrangements
For
Pistons - Cylinders

111
 Lubrication Arrangements

Lubricated Cylinder Design

Non-lubricated Cylinder Design

112
 Lubricated Cylinder Design
About 80% of all process reciprocating compressor
cylinders are lubricated.
It reduces friction between piston rings & cylinder bore.
Reduces frictional heat and wear of both cylinder bore
and piston rings.
It lubricates the cylinder valves, helping them to survive
the cycles they go through in a years operation.
Lubricant film in the cylinder also helps in protecting
the cylinder components from the effects of corrosive
gases.

113
 Non-lubricated Cylinder Design
About 20% of all process reciprocating compressor
cylinders are non-lubricated because of process demands.
Some processes do not tolerate oil entrained in the gas
stream.
Oil in gas stream could lead to catastrophic problems in
an oxygen compressor or even in high pressure air
compressor.

114
 Operation
Of
Reciprocating
Compressor

115
 Startup and Shutdown
Operator must know the startup and shutdown
procedures of the compressor
Operator should study and memorize the
operation and maintenance manuals before
starting a compressor
Experienced operator can detect malfunctions
and correct them before they become serious
Operators must be familiar with the start-up and
shutdown feel of the compressor.

116
 Pre-Startup
Check that all maintenance jobs on the compressor
are completed and work permits returned.
The compressor is unloaded before startup
Before startup the setting of the valves should be as
follows:

117
 Pre-Startup
Suction block valve should be open.
Discharge block valve should be closed.
Final Discharge Pressure Control valve
should be closed and on Auto Mode while its
block valve should be open.
Compressor Recycle valves should be full
open and their block valves / bypass valves
are open.

118
 Pre-Startup
A compressor that is new, reconditioned or one
that has been idle for a long time should be
thoroughly checked before startup
The gas supply to the compressor must be
Continuous, Clean and Dry
Make sure that there is no liquid in gas suction
line
All bearings must be lubricated with oil
For an air compressor its suction filter must be in
place and clean
119
 Pre-Startup
Check the crank case must be filled with oil up to
the specified level
If pre-lubrication system is available, start lube oil
pump 5 to 10 min before startup
Check that cooling water is in service and flowing
in each cooling system e.g. intercoolers, cylinders
jacketing, lube oil coolers
When an oil cooler is used, make sure that all oil
and water valves are in their correct operating
positions.
120
 Pre-Startup
Motor driven unit can be loaded immediately
If compressor driver has separate lubrication and cooling
system, make sure that these are in normal operating
position
When lube oil circulation is established, check the P of the
filter
If the compressor is motor driven, check the bearing oil
level of the motor.
Check all safety controls and alarms are in service and in
good operating condition
Any oil spills or other possible hazards must be removed or
cleared from the area

121
 Startup
To begin loading the compressor, slowly close its
final stage recycle valve.
Compressor discharge pressure will start
increasing slowly.
When discharge pressure slightly increase the
downstream system pressure, take compressor
flow on venting.
Alternate between discharge block valve and vent
valve until vent valve is fully closed and discharge
valve is fully opened
122
 Normal Operation
After loading make sure that the compressor
valves are not leaking or overheating
The operator observes the compressor and its
driver
Readings of pressure, temperature and flow rate
through compressor are logged.
If these conditions remain steady, the
compressor probably is running normal
Any change in these readings at the same
capacity indicates a faulty operation
123
 Shutdown
Unload the compressor before shutting down the
driver
Unloading is reverse of loading operation
Slowly open its vent valve and start closing its
final block valve.
With fully closed its final block valve, take full
control on vent valve.
Start unloading the compressor by opening its
final recycle valve if available, otherwise stop the
compressor.
124
 Trouble shooting
If all other operating conditions remain
unchanged, even a slight increase in gas
temperature probably indicates that the suction or
discharge valve is faulty or leaking
Compressor lube oil temperature is maintained ~
50 to 65 oC, out of the range temperature
indicates that lube oil cooler is not functioning
properly or oil pump is not circulating oil properly

125
 Trouble Shooting
A drop in lube oil pressure may indicate a
choked filter
If bearings were either worn or burned, this
would also produce drop in lube oil
pressure
Replaceable filter elements should be
changed when pressure drop reaches the
specified pressure differential

126
 Trouble Shooting
The temperature of the cylinder cooling water
jacket may change, it means faulty operation of
cooling water system
Significant changes in compression ratio also
increase the temperature of in the cylinder and
cause an increase in temp. in the discharge gas
Discharge valves life can be shortened by
operating at high temperatures

127