Transducers

Introduction
A transducer is defined as a device that receives energy from
one system and transmits it to another, often in a different form
(electrical, mechanical or acoustical).
Basically, there are two types of transducers :
1) Electrical
2) Mechanical

The electrical output of a transducer depends on the basic

principle involved in the design.
The output may be analog, digital, or frequency modulated.

An electrical transducer is a device that converts a physical,

mechanical or optical quantity into a proportional voltage or
current quantity.
 Electrical transducers can be classified into two major
categories :
1) Active transducers
Generates an electrical signal directly in response to the
physical parameter (does not require external power to
operate).
Example : piezo-electric sensor and photo cells.
2) Passive transducers
Requires external power to operate.
Example : Strain gauges and thermistors.
CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCER
 Change in the capacitance of a capacitor due to the variation in A, d,
or can be utilized for the measurement of physical variables like
displacement, force, pressure, etc.

The liquid level in a container can also be measured by measuring

the change in capacitance due to change in dielectric constant of the
liquid poured into the container having two plates inserted inside.
 Another example of capacitive transducer is the capacitive
pressure transducer as shown in the figure above.
This sensor is designed to measure pressure (in vacuum).
A metallic diaphragm will move to the right when pressure
is applied to the chamber and to the left when vacuum is
applied.
This diaphragm is used as one plate of a variable capacitor.
The capacitive transducer is simple to construct, and
inexpensive.
Inductive Transducer
 Inductive transducers operate on the principle of
variation of self inductance of a coil or on the
principle of variation of mutual inductance.

There are two common type inductive transducers

Simple inductance type
Two-coil mutual inductance type
 Figure (a) and (b) are transducers used for the measurement of
displacement of linear and angular Inductive Transducer movement
respectively.
In both cases, as the number of turns are changed, the self inductance
and the output also changes.
Where N = # turns,
R = Reluctance of the materials/path
where the flux is going through
= permeability
Therefore A = cross-sectional area of the coil winding
(round loop) in m2
l = length of the winding (magnetic flux path)
 Fig shows an inductive transducer which works on the principle of the
variation of permeability causing a change in self inductance.
If a permeable core is inserted into an inductor as shown in Fig, the
net inductance is increased.
When the iron core is inside the winding, its permeability is increased,
and so is the inductance.
Every new position of the core produces a different inductance.
In this fashion, the inductor and movable core assembly may be used
as a displacement sensor. An ac bridge or other active electronic
circuit sensitive to inductance then may be employed for signal
conditioning.
 Figure shows the variable reluctance transducer.
The transducer consists of a coil wound on a ferromagnetic core.
The displacement which is to be measured is applied to a
ferromagnetic target.
The core and the target are separated by an air gap.
The self inductance of the coil is inversely proportional to the length
of the air gap.
When the target is near the core, the length ( of the air gape) is small,
thus increases the self inductance.
 Inductive Transducer (variable reluctance)
The inductance of the variable reluctance transducer is given by:

The reluctance of the iron target (ferromagnetic) part is negligible,

thus:

Rg is proportional to lg, thus L is inversely proportional to lg.

 Linear Variable Differential Transformers
The LVDT is an important and common sensor for displacement in
the industrial environment.
An LVDT Displacement Transducer comprises 3 coils; a primary and
two secondaries.
The primary coil is excited by some ac source as shown.
Flux formed by the primary is linked to the two secondary coils,
inducing an ac voltage in each coil.
When the position of the core is at null position, the induced EMF in
the two secondary windings, E1 and E2 are equal and opposite. The
transducer output voltage is zero.
When the core is displaced by a force towards the left as shown
in Fig, E1 will be greater than E2 due to the difference in flux linkage
created by the primary winding ampere turns.
When the core is moved towards the right as shown in fig (c), the
induced EMF E2 will be greater than E1.
The magnitude of the differential output voltage E0 will vary with the
change in core position.
 The output voltage, E0 at null position is
ideally zero and will increase when the
core is made to move either towards the
left or towards the right.
It is observed that the output voltage
changes linearly with the displacement of
the core. The output voltage is a function
of the displacement of the core.
 A remarkable result, shown in Fig below, is that the differential
amplitude is found to increase linearly as the core is moved to
one side or the other.
In addition, as noted, there is a phase change as the core moves
through the central location.
Thus, by measurement of the voltage amplitude and phase, one
can determine the direction and extent of the core motion, that
is, the displacement.
 POTENTIOMETRIC TRANSDUCER
A potentiometric transducer is basically an electrical resistive
transducer which converts linear or angular motion into a changing
resistance which may be converted directly to voltage and or current.
A potentiometer is an electromechanical device having a resistance
element with a sliding facility.
Motion of the slider results in a resistance change that may be linear ,
logarithmic, exponential and so on, depending on the manner in which
the resistance wire is wound.
In some cases deposited carbon, platinum film, and other techniques
are used to provide the resistance element.
The sliding contact is known as wiper, which may be translatory or
rotary, according to the design.
Some potentiometers, also called pots, are designed combining
these two types of motions.
The output voltage is
and in the case of translational and rotational potentiometer,
respectively, as shown in Fig. 12.8.
 The resistance element of a potentiometer is excited either
by ac or dc voltage.
The motion of the wiper or slider makes a resistance
change that may be linear, logarithmic, or exponential.
In Fig. 12.9 are shown applications of potentiometric
transducers in the measurement of linear and angular
displacement.
 Piezoelectric Transducer
Piezoelectric transducer consists of a crystal material such as Quartz,
Rochelle salt and Barium titanite which produces an emf when they
are placed under stress.

This property is used in piezoelectric transducers, where a crystal is

placed between a slid base and the force-summing member, as shown
in fig .
An externally applied force, entering the transducer through its
pressure port, applies pressure to the top of a crystal. This produces an
emf across the crystal, proportional to the magnitude of the applied
pressure to the top of a crystal.

This produces an emf across the crystal , proportional to the

magnitude of the applied pressure.
 Advantage:
The device needs no external power source and is therefore self-
generation.
Disadvantages:
The principal disadvantage of this transducer is that it cannot measure
static conditions.
The output voltage is also affected by temperature variations of the
crystal.
Application:
Since the Piezoelectric transducer has a very good high-frequency
response, its principal use is in
high-frequency accelerometer.
In this application its output voltage
is typically on the order of 1 to 30mV
per g of acceleration.
Temperature Transducers
 There are two temperature sensing methods
1) Contact
2) Non-contact

Contact sensing brings the sensor in physical contact with

a substance or object. It can be used with solids, liquids or
gases.
Non-contact (infrared) temperature sensing reads
temperature by intercepting a portion of the infrared
energy emitted by an object or substance, and detecting its
intensity. Non-contact is used to sense the temperature of
solids and liquids. Non-contact cannot be used on gases
due to their transparent nature.
 Non-contact Temperature Sensors
Advantages
Relatively rugged
Remote mounting away from heat source
Ideal for measuring objects in motion
Does not interfere with process.
Faster response (milliseconds compared to seconds for contact
sensing)
Can sense temperature of irregular shaped objects
Will not deface, mar or contaminate (To make impure or unclean by contact)
Will not act as a heat sink.
Measurements of high temperatures (greater than 1300C) present no
problems. In similar cases, contact thermometers cannot be used, or
have a limited life.
Disadvantages
Will not measure gas temperatures
Emissivity variations
 Ambient temperature (surrounding temp) restrictions
Indicated temperature affected by environmental
conditions (dust, smoke, etc.)

Summary: The main advantages of noncontact IR

thermometry are speed, lack of interference, and the ability
to measure in high temperature ranges to 3000C.
Keep in mind that only the surface temperature can be
measured.
 Contact Temperature Sensors

Advantages
Relatively rugged
Economical
Wide application range
Relatively accurate
Simple to apply
Disadvantages
Requires physical contact, may damage, mar or
contaminate
Can cause wear on rotary components (slip rings)
Slow to respond relative to non-contact sensing
Acts as a heat sink, alters readings on small objects
 An IR thermometer can be compared to the human eye. The lens of
the eye represents the optics through which the radiation (flow of
photons) from the object reaches the photosensitive layer (retina) via
the atmosphere. This is converted into a signal that is sent to the brain.
Fig. above shows an infrared measuring system process flow.
 TARGET:
Every form of matter with a temperature (T) above absolute zero
emits infrared radiation according to its temperature. This is called
characteristic radiation.
The cause of this is the internal mechanical movement of molecules.
The intensity of this movement depends on the temperature of the
object. Since the molecule movement represents charge displacement,
electromagnetic radiation (photon particles) is emitted. These photons
move at the speed of light and behave according to the known optical
principles.
They can be deflected, focused with a lens, or reflected from reflective
surfaces.
The spectrum of this radiation ranges from 0.7 to 1000 m
wavelength. For this reason, this radiation cannot normally be seen
with the naked eye.
This area lies within the red area of visible light (having a wavelength
just greater than that of the red end of the visible light spectrum)and
has therefore been called "infra"-red after the Latin.
Bodies at high temperatures still emit a small amount of visible radiation.
This is why everyone can see objects at very high temperatures (above
600C) glowing somewhere from red to white.
Experienced steelworkers can even estimate temperature quite accurately
from the color.
 Contact Temperature Sensors
Types:
1) Expansion Thermometer
Bimetallic Thermometer (Solid expansion).
Liquid in Glass thermometer (Mercury or Ethyl alcohol in glass)
Gas / Vapor Thermometer.

2) RTD (Resistance Temperature Detector)

Its metallic resistance based.

3) Thermister
Its semiconductor resistance based.

4) Thermocouple
Its based on Thermoelectric Effect.
 RTD
Resistance thermometers, also called resistance temperature
detectors (RTDs), are sensors used to measure temperature by
correlating the resistance of the RTD element with temperature.
Most RTD elements consist of a length of fine coiled wire wrapped
around a ceramic or glass core. The element is usually quite fragile,
so it is often placed inside a sheathed probe to protect it. The RTD
element is made from a pure material, typically platinum, nickel or
copper. The material has a predictable change in resistance as the
temperature changes and it is this predictable change that is used to
determine temperature.
They are slowly replacing the use of thermocouples in many
industrial applications below 600 C, due to higher accuracy and
repeatability.
 The RTD resistance at temperature T C is given by :
 Resistive temperature detectors have positive temperature coefficients
(PTC) but unlike the thermistor their output is extremely linear
producing very accurate measurements of temperature.
The more common types of RTD's are made from platinum and are
called Platinum Resistance Thermometer or PRT's with the most
commonly available of them all the Pt100 sensor, which has a
standard resistance value of 100 at 0oC. The downside is that
Platinum is expensive and one of the main disadvantages of this type
of device is its cost.
Platinum resistance thermometers (PRTs) offer excellent accuracy
over a wide temperature range (from 200 to +850 C).
 Advantages:
Accurate
Provide good stability and repeatability
RTD's are also relatively immune to electrical noise and therefore well
suited for temperature measurement in industrial environments,
especially around motors, generators and other high voltage
equipments.
The resistance changes linearly with temperature so the measurement
is quite simple.
Suitable for precision applications
Disadvantages:
Lower temperature measuring range
High cost
The RTD's are not well suited to use in harsh environments compared
to thermocouple.
Have poor sensitivity, that is a change in temperature only produces a
very small output change for example, 1/oC.
 Bi-metallic Thermostat
The thermostat consists of two thermally different metals stuck
together back to back.
When it is cold the contacts are closed and current passes through the
thermostat.
When it gets hot, one metal expands more than the other and the
bonded bi-metallic strip bends up (or down) opening the contacts
preventing the current from flowing.
On/Off Thermostat
There are two main types of bi-metallic strips based mainly upon their
movement when subjected to temperature changes. There are the
"snap-action" (Switch) types that produce an instantaneous "ON/OFF"
or "OFF/ON" type action on the electrical contacts at a set
temperature point, and the slower "creep-action" types that gradually
change their position as the temperature changes.
 Thermistor
A thermistor is a temperature sensitive semiconductor resistor
whose resistance varies significantly with temperature, more so than
in standard resistors.

Thermistor are generally made from ceramic materials such as oxides

of nickel, manganese and sulphides of iron , cooper or aluminum.

Most types of thermistor's have a Negative Temperature Coefficient of

resistance or (NTC), that is their resistance value decreases with an
increase in the temperature but some with a Positive Temperature
Coefficient, (PTC), their resistance value goes UP with an increase in
temperature are also available but they are less in use.

Thermistors typically have range 90 C to 130 C.

 Advantages:
Thermistors offer better accuracy in comparison
to RTDs and thermocouples.
Unlike RTDs and thermocouples, they are highly sensitive..
They are smaller in size as compared to thermocouples.
Thermistors provide faster response than RTDs.
They offer high stability and brilliant repeatability..
Unlike thermocouples which provide millivolt outputs, use of
thermistors result in reasonable output voltages.
Thermistors are particularly low cost temperature sensors. Hence,
they are widely employed for simple temperature measurements.
Disadvantages:
Since thermistors are semiconductor devices, their operation is highly
non linear. This effect of nonlinearity needs to be compensated before
applying them in measurement circuits.
 Another disadvantage of thermistors is their limited
temperature range due to which they are rendered
unsuitable for use at higher temperatures.

Some of the applications of thermistors are

Thermistors are widely used in applications as
temperature sensors and as current limiters.
A PTC is used as a current limiter. As the current
increases the temperature increases. hence the resistance
increases limiting the current.
 Thermocouples
Thermocouples are thermoelectric sensors that basically consists of
two junctions of dissimilar metals, such as copper and constantan that
are welded or crimped together.
One junction is kept at a constant temperature called the reference
(Cold) junction, while the other the measuring (Hot) junction.
When the two junctions are at different temperatures,
a voltage is developed across the junction
which is used to measure the temperature
sensor.
 Advantage:
Capable of being used to directly measure temperatures up to 2600C.
The thermocouple junction may be grounded and brought into direct
contact with the material being measured.
High resolution
Disadvantage:
Temperature measurement with a thermocouple requires two
temperatures be measured, the junction at the work end (the hot
junction) and the junction where wires meet the instrumentation
copper wires (cold junction).
Thermocouples operation are relatively complex with potential
sources of error. The materials of which thermocouple wires are made
are not inert and the thermoelectric voltage developed along the length
of the thermocouple wire may be influenced by corrosion etc.
The relationship between the process temperature and the
thermocouple signal (millivolt) is not linear.
 Piezoelectric Transducers
The conversion of electrical pulses to mechanical vibrations and the
conversion of returned mechanical vibrations back into electrical
energy is the basis for ultrasonic testing. The active element is the
heart of the transducer as it converts the electrical energy to
acoustic energy, and vice versa.
The active element is basically a piece of polarized material (i.e.
some parts of the molecule are positively charged, while other parts
of the molecule are negatively charged) with electrodes attached to
two of its opposite faces.
When an electric field is applied across the material, the polarized
molecules will align themselves with the electric field, resulting in
induced dipoles within the molecular or crystal structure of the
material. This alignment of molecules will cause the material to
change dimensions. This phenomenon is known as electrostriction.
 In addition, a permanently-polarized
material such as quartz (SiO2) or
barium titanate (BaTiO3) will produce
an electric field when the material
changes dimensions as a result of an
imposed mechanical force. This phenomenon is known as the
piezoelectric effect.
The active element of most acoustic transducers used today is
a piezoelectric ceramic, which can be cut in various ways to produce
different wave modes.
The thickness of the active element is determined by the desired
frequency of the transducer.
A thin wafer element vibrates with a wavelength that is twice its
thickness. Therefore, piezoelectric crystals are cut to a thickness
that is 1/2 the desired radiated wavelength. The higher the
frequency of the transducer, the thinner the active element. The
primary reason that high frequency contact transducers are not
produced is because the element is very thin and too fragile.