ARGUMENTS

-it is traditionally defined as a verbal expression of

mediate inference.
1. An argument has two basic elements:
1.1 Premise. It is a part of an argument which
serves as the reasons or evidence for accepting
or believing a certain claim. It answers the
question why?
1.2 Conclusion. It is a part of an argument
which serves as the claim or the main point
which one tries to prove. It answers the
question what?
2. An argument is a set of propositions.
Ex. All mammals feed their young with milk.
All humans are mammals. (premise)
Therefore, all humans feed their young with
milk. (conclusion)
3. An argument has an inferential claim.
Ex. (non-argument):
No Filipinos are Europeans.
All Cebuanos are Filipinos.
Therefore, no Americans are Europeans.
 CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISM
-it is a deductive argument in which a conclusion is
inferred from two premises. It is called a
categorical syllogism if it contains three
categorical propositions (two premises and a
conclusion in which it appears a total of exactly
three categorical terms, each of which is used
exactly twice.
Ex.
(A) All sectarian schools are private schools. Premise
(A) UST is a sectarian school. Premise
(A) Therefore, UST is a private school. Conclusion
1. The terms
1.1 the major term (P) is the predicate of the conclusion
and it is found in one of the premises.
1.2 the minor term (S) is the subject of the conclusion
and it is found in one of the premises.
1.3 the middle term (M) is found in both premises but
not in the conclusion.
M p
Ex. All animals are sentient beings.
S m
All humans are animals
S p
Therefore, all humans are sentient beings.
2. The propositions
2.1 the major premise is constituted by the predicate of
the conclusion (major term) and the middle term.
2.2 the major premise is constituted by the subject of
the conclusion (minor term) and the middle term.
2.3 the conclusion is constituted by the minor and the
major terms.
M p
Ex. All animals are sentient beings. Major premise
S m
All humans are animals. Minor Premise
S p
Therefore, all humans are sentient beings. Conclusion
The Principles of Categorical Syllogism:
1. The principle of reciprocal identity
-this principle provides that if both the major and
the minor terms agree with the third term, that is
the middle term, then they are identical with each
other.
M p
Ex. All mayors are government officials.
S m
Mr. Garcia is a mayor.
S p
Therefore, Mr. Garcia is a governmental official.
2. The principle of reciprocal non-identity
-this principle provides that if one of the terms,
either the minor or major, agrees with the third
term and the other does not agree with the same
third term, then they are not identical with each
other.
P m
Ex. A cow is an animal.
S M
A mahogany is not an animal.
S P
Therefore, a mahogany is not a cow.
3. The Dictum de Omni (Law of All)
-this principle provides that what is affirmed
of a logical class is also affirmed of its logical
member.
M p
Ex. All motorcycles are land vehicles.
S m
Kawasaki is a motorcycle.
S p
Therefore, Kawasaki is a land vehicle.
4. The Dictum de Nullo (Law of None)
-this principle provides that what is denied of
a logical class is also denied of its logical member.
M P
Ex. No Visayans are Ilocanos.
S m
All Boholanos are Visayans.
S P
Therefore, Boholanos are not Ilocanos.