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Where V1 and V2 are the input signals and the constant A is known as
the open-loop gain (There is no feedback loop connecting the output
terminal to the input terminals).
It is observed that in the expression for the output V0, the input signal
at terminal 1 appears with a negative sign attached to it. On the other
hand, the input signal at terminal 2 appears without alteration in its
sign.
This op-amp senses the difference between the input signals and
amplifies the difference between the input signals.
When the output attains this level, it does not increase any further
even if the input voltages are increased. This op-amp is now said to
be saturated.
When Vin < Vref the voltage at the inverting (-) terminal is greater than
the voltage at the non-inverting (+) terminal and hence Vo = -Vsat it
being approximately equal to -VEE.
When Vin > Vref the voltage at the non-inverting (+) terminal is greater
than the voltage at the inverting (-) terminal and hence Vo = + Vsat it
being approximately equal to +Vcc Therefore, when Vin crosses Vref the
output voltage V0 changes instantaneously from one saturation level
i.e. from +Vcc to -VEE or from -VEE to +Vcc to other and waveforms are
shown in the figure.
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The ratio Vo/Vi is the closed loop voltage gain VCL of the circuit. As
there is a feedback loop, the gain is known as the closed loop gain. We
see that it differs from A, the open-loop gain and depends only on the
values of the external resistances R1and Rf.
The minus sign (-) indicates that the output is inverted with respect to
the input. Thus the above circuit represents an inverting amplifier.
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The Non-Inverting Op-Amp Circuit:
A non-inverting Op-Amp circuit is one whose output is in phase with
the input. Figure shows an Op-Amp circuit with a small input Vi
applied to the non-inverting terminal. The inverting terminal is
connected through a resistor R1 to the ground. Rf is the feedback
resistor.
Since the gain is positive, no phase change occurs for the signal.
Thus the above circuit represents a non-inverting amplifier.
For commercial Op-amps the CMRR lies in the range 60 to 100 dB.
5. Output Voltage Swing: This is the peak output voltage with respect
to zero available at the output without distortion. It is a function of
the supply voltage. Thus, in an amplifier operating between supply
voltages +6 and -6 V, the peak-to-peak undistorted output swing
might be from -4 V to +4V (in practice the allowable voltage swing
is not always symmetrical).
6. Input Common-mode Voltage Swing: This is the maximum range
of input voltage that can be simultaneously applied to both inputs
without causing
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7. Input Offset Current (Iio): This is the difference of the currents into
the input terminals with the output at zero volts.
8. Input Offset Voltage: Whenever both the input terminals of the Op-
amp are grounded, ideally, the output voltage should be zero.
However, in this condition, the practical Op-amp shows a small non-
zero output voltage. To make this output voltage zero, a small
voltage in milli volts (1-4) is required to be applied to one of the
input terminals. Such a voltage makes the output exactly zero. This
d.c. voltage, which makes the output voltage zero, when the other
terminal is grounded is called input offset voltage denoted as Vio.
9. Input Bias Current: Input bias current can be defined as the current
flowing into each of the two input terminals when they are biased to
the same voltage level, i.e., when the Op-amp is balanced.
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10. Power-supply Voltage-rejection ratio: A change in supply voltage
VCC will produce a change Vo in the amplifier output. The
power-supply voltage-rejection ratio Vo/VCC is usually specified
for the condition that the difference voltage input Vi = 0. Typically
this ratio is in the range 10-5 to 7 x 10-5.
12. Slew Rate: Slew Rate is one of the most important specifications
of an Op-amp because it limits the size of the output voltage at
higher frequencies.
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The charging current in a capacitor is given by i = C dV/dt
OR i/C = dV/dt
The above equation says that the rate of change of voltage is equal to
the charging current divided by the capacitance.
The larger the charging current, the faster the capacitor charges. If the
charging current is limited to a maximum value, the rate of change of
voltage is also limited to a maximum value.
This shows that the output voltage across the capacitor changes at a
maximum rate of 2V/S. The voltage cannot change faster than this
unless Imax is increased or Cc is decreased.
Slew Rate is defined as the maximum rate of output voltage change.
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for rate = Imax/CC
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Modes of Operation: (Ideal)
1. Single-ended mode: Single-ended input operation results when the
input signal is connected to one input with the other input
connected to ground.
Figure-1 shows the input is applied to the plus input (with minus input
at ground), which results in an output having the same polarity. as the
applied input signal. Figure-2 shows an input signal applied to the
minus input, the output then being opposite in phase to the applied
signal.
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2. Differential mode:
Op-Amp has the ability to greatly amplify signals that are opposite at
the two inputs, while only slightly amplifying signals that are common
to both inputs.
In differential mode, the two input signals are equal but have opposite
polarity at every instant of time. Thus referring to figure, Vi1 = -Vi2. So
Differential input VDM = (Vi1 - Vi2)
This shows that when the inputs are ideal in-phase signals (no
difference signal), the output is the common-mode gain times the input
signal Vs, which shows that only common-mode operation occurs.
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Common-Mode Rejection:
The solutions above provide the relationships that can be used to
measure AD and AC in op-amp circuits.
Thus, setting the input voltages Vi1 = -Vi2 = 0.5V results in an output
voltage numerically equal to the value of AD.
(i.e.forAD = 2*Vs = 2*Vi1 or 2*Vi2)
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To measure AC: Set Vi1 = Vi2 = Vs = 1V, so that
We can show that this Op-Amp gives an output voltage which is equal
to the input voltage, and is in phase with it.
Vo = Vi
Hence the output voltage is equal to the input voltage. Also, it is in
phase with the input voltage. As the output voltage follows the input
voltage at all instants, this Op-Amp is called Voltage Follower.
Vo = (V2 V1)
R2
VN V2
R2 R f
if R f R2
V2
VN
2 for
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For Non-inverting amplifier,
V02 = [1 + (Rf/R2)] * VN (Here Rf = R2)
V02 = 2 VN = 2 (V2/2) = V2
Thus we see that the output voltage is the integral of the input voltage
and hence the circuit functions as an integrator.
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6. Differentiating Circuit:
A differentiator circuit is one whose output is the differential
coefficient of the input. Figure shows a differentiator circuit using an
Op-Amp. G is the virtual ground.
but i = dq/dt
but
ACL = -10, R1 = 30 K
Rf = 300 K
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3. An inverting amplifier of figure has a load resistor of 50 K
connected to its output. If the input voltage is 0.5 V, find the load
current, output voltage and input current.
Vo = 5*0.2 = 1 V
5. Design an amplifier to have a gain of + 10 using a single Op-amp.
Comparing the above equation with the one given in the problem, we
have,
6. The maximum rate at which amplifier output can change in volts per microsecond
(V/s) is called
A) Over rate B) Slew rate C) Under rate D) None
Since the gain is positive, no phase change occurs for the signal. The
expression in eq-(2) was derived on the assumption of infinite open-
loop amplifier gain AV.