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Natural Waters
A. Koschinsky
Geochemistry - an Introduction
What is Geochemistry?
The urge to make geology more quantitative has led to the widespread
inclusion of the so-called basic sciences such as physics and chemistry into
the study of geology. The term geochemistry was first used by the Swiss
chemist Schnbein in 1838. V.M. Goldschmidt, who is regarded as the
founder of modern geochemistry, characterized geochemistry in 1933 with
the following words:
The Periodic Table of Elements
Symbols and numbers Isotopes
The Electronic Structure of Atoms
Lshell
Kshell N
L M
K
Chemical Properties of the Elements
Ionization potential
Example: H --> H+ + e-
Electronegativity
The concept of Electronegativity refers to the ability of a bonded atom to pull electrons
towards itself.
It is defined as the relative ability of an atom in a molecule to attract electrons towards itself.
As atoms bond, electrons are shared or transferred. The atom with the higher
electronegativity will dominate the electrons.
(Paulingscale)
Chemical Properties of the Elements
Chemical Properties of the Elements
M = (IEv + EAv)/2
Chemical Properties of the Elements
Ionic radius
Cations have smaller radii than anions. Ionic radius decreases with increasing charge.
Ionic radius is important for geochemical reactions such as substitution in crystal lattices,
solubility, and diffusion rates.
Comparisonofsomeatomicandrespectiveionic
radii(innanometers)
Chemical Bonding
Ionic Bond: total transfer of electrons from one atom to another
Chemical Properties of the Elements - Summary
Hydrogen Hydrogen is unique as it is the simplest possible atom consisting of
just one proton and one electron
Alkali Metals These are very reactive metals that do not occur freely in nature.
These metals have only one electron in their outer shell, therefore
they are ready to lose that one electron in ionic bonding with other
elements. The alkali metals are softer than most other metals.
Cesium and francium are the most reactive elements in this group.
Alkaline Earth The alkaline earth elements are metallic. All alkaline earth elements
Metals have an oxidation number of +2, making them very reactive.
Because of their reactivity, the alkaline metals are not found free in
nature.
Transition The transition elements are both ductile and malleable, and conduct
Metals electricity and heat. The interesting thing about transition metals is
that their valence electrons, or the electrons they use to combine
with other elements, are present in more than one shell. This is the
reason why they often exhibit several common oxidation states.
Other Metals The 7 elements classified as other metals, unlike the transition
elements, do not exhibit variable oxidation states, and their valence
electrons are only present in their outer shell. All of these elements
are solid. They have oxidation numbers of +3, +4, -4, and -3.
Chemical Properties of the Elements - Summary
Metalloids Metalloids are the elements found along the stair-step line that
distinguishes metals from non-metals. This line is drawn from
between Boron and Aluminum to the border between Polonium and
Astatine. Metalloids have properties of both metals and non-metals.
Some of the metalloids, such as silicon and germanium, are semi-
conductors.
Non-Metals Non-metals are not able to conduct electricity or heat very well. As
opposed to metals, non-metallic elements are very brittle. The non-
metals exist in two of the three states of matter at room temperature:
gases (such as oxygen) and solids (such as carbon). They have
oxidation numbers of +4, -4, -3, and -2.
Rare Earth The thirty rare earth elements are composed of the lanthanide and
Metals actinide series. They are transition metals. One element of the
lanthanide series and most of the elements in the actinide series are
called trans-uranic, and are synthetic or man-made
Halogens The term halogen means salt-former and compounds containing
halogens are called salts. All halogens have 7 electrons in their
outer shell, giving them an oxidation number of -1. The halogens are
non-metallic and exist, at room temperature, in all three states of
matter
Noble Gases All noble gases have the maximum number of electrons possible in
their outer shell (2 for Helium, 8 for all others), making them stable
and preventing them from forming compounds readily.
What is the Solar System made of?
What is the relative abundances of the various elements throughout the Universe?
This turns out to be a difficult task for one obvious reason. Spectroscopic measurements
of elements from the distant stars are strongly biased towards only those elements in
excited states at or near the stellar surface. Those elements principally in the interior do
not contribute to surface radiation in the same proportions as actually exist in a star.
The situation is better for the Sun. When element distributions are stated as Cosmic
Abundances, they actually are rough estimates made from Solar Abundances .
What is the Solar
System made of?
An overwhelming abundance
of light elements
A strong preference for even-
numbered elements
A peak in abundance at iron,
followed by a steady decrease.
Elements 3-5, Lithium,
Beryllium and Boron, are very
low in abundance.
What is the Solar System made of?
What is the Earth made of?
Crustal Element Distribution
The abundance of elements in the Earth's crust is much different from the abundance of
elements that are to be found on the other planets and our Sun. The continental crust of
the Earth also differs radically from the overall composition of the Earth.
Our Earth as a whole and its crust, in particular, have extraordinary concentrations of
elements, all associated with silicate minerals like olivine, pyroxene, amphibole,
plagioclase, the micas, and quartz. Although there are a vast number of silicate minerals,
most silicate minerals are made from just eight elements.
The two most common elements in the Earth's crust, oxygen and silicon, combine to form
the "backbone" of the silicate minerals, along with, occasionally, aluminum and iron.
These four elements alone account for about 87% of the Earth's crust. This silicate or
alumina-silicate "backbone" carries excess negative charge, however. Positive charge in
the form of cations has to be brought in to balance this negative charge. The four most
important elements that fit in the mineralogical structures of the silicates are calcium,
sodium, potassium and magnesium. Taken all together, constituting nearly 99% of crustal
elements, leaves little room for all of the other elements.
As a consequence, all other elements are either nearly absent from the Earth's crust or
are found primarily in non-silicate rocks.
What is the Earth made of?
d. In sheet silicates,
such as talc, mica, and
clays, the tetrahedra
each share 3 oxygens
and are bound together
into sheets.