Fuels &

Combustion
 History

First approximation of the true

nature of combustion
He discovered in 1772 that the
products of burned sulfur or
phosphorusin effect their ashes
outweighed the initial substances, and
he postulated that the increased
weight was due to their having
combined with air.
French chemist Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier
The first practical engine, Lenoir's, ran on
illuminating gas (coal gas). It wasn't until
1883, that Daimler created an engine that ran
on liquid petroleum, a fuel called Ligroin
which has a chemical makeup of Hexane-N.
The fuel is also known as petroleum naptha.
Daimler AG is a German multinational
automotive corporation.
1876: Nikolaus Otto, working with Gottlieb
Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach, patented the
compressed charge, four-stroke engine.[16]
The German courts, however, did not hold
his patent to cover all in-cylinder
compression engines or even the four-stroke
cycle, and after this decision, in-cylinder
compression became universal.
Three-horsepower internal-combustion engine fueled by coal
gas and air, illustration, 1896.
Otto's first engines were push engines which produced a push
through the entire stroke (like a Diesel). Daimler's engines
produced a rapid pulse, more suitable for mobile engine use.
FUELS
- a substance that
is burned to produce
heat or power
Combustible Elements
Carbon
Hydrogen
Sulfur
CHARACTERISTICS FOR GOOD FUEL
High calorific value.
Moderate ignition temperature.
Low moisture content.
Low contents of non-combustible
matters.
Combustion should be controllable.
Easy to transport and readily available
at low cost.
Calorific Value
It is defined as the amount
of heat liberated by the
complete combustion of a
unit mass of the fuel.
Calorific Value releases by
each constituents:
Hydrogen 144 000 kJ/kg
Carbon 33 700 kJ/kg
Sulfur 9 300 kJ/kg
Gross or High Calorific Value
(GCV)
It is defined as the total heat
generated when a unit quantity
of fuel is completely burnt and
the products of combustion are
cooled to room temperature.
Net or Lower Calorific Value
(NCV)
It is defined as the net heat
produced when a unit quantity of
fuel is completely burnt and the
products of combustion are
allowed to escape.
LCV = HCV- enthalpy of evaporation
EE = latent heat of condensation of
steam produced
Sample Problem
A 1kg typical marine heavy fuel oil
may contain 85% carbon, 12%
hydrogen, and 3% Sulphur by mass.
Calculate the Higher Calorific Value
(HCV), Enthalpy of Evaporation, and
Lower calorific Value (LCV).
Theoretical calculation of calorific value
(Dulongs formula)
According to Dulong, the calorific value of a fuel is
the sum of the calorific values of its constituent
elements.

C 8080 kcals/kg 33820 kJ/kg

H 34500 kcals/kg 144212 kJ/kg
S 2240 kcals/kg 9304 kJ/kg

= + +

H2 = 26 15.536 (%)
Sample Problem
A fuel has the following
constituents: Carbon 85%,
Hydrogen 13%, and Oxygen 2%.
Compute its calorific value in
kJ/kg.
PRINCIPLES OF CLASSIFICATIONS OF FUELS
Fuels may broadly be classified in two ways:
(a)According to the mode of their
procurement natural and manufactured.
(b)According to the physical state in which
they exist in nature solid, liquid and
gaseous.
NATURAL (FOSSIL FUEL)
- Any combustible organic
material, as oil (petroleum),
coal, or natural gas, derived
from the remains of former life.
MANUFACTURED
Gasification
- it is a manufacturing process
that converts any material containing
carbon-such as coal, petroleum coke
(petcoke), biomass or waste-into
synthesis gas (syngas)
Fractional Distillation
- is the separation of a mixture
into its component parts, or fractions,
such as in separating chemical
compounds by their boiling point by
heating them to a temperature at
which one or more fractions of the
compound will vaporize
Solid Fuels
ADVANTAGES OF SOLID FUELS:
Solid fuels are easily available and they are
cheap.
Handling and transportation are easy.
They can be stored conveniently without any
risk.
They have a moderate ignition temperature.
Solid Fuels
DISADVANTAGES OF SOLID FUELS:
Combustion process cannot be easily
controlled.
The calorific value is comparatively lower.
They form large amount of ash and its
disposal is a big problem.
A large space is required for storage.
Liquid Fuels
ADVANTAGES OF LIQUID FUELS:
They have higher calorific value than solid
fuel.
They occupy less storage space than solid
fuels
Their combustion is uniform and easily
controllable.
Liquid fuels do not yield any ash after
burning.
Liquid Fuels
DISADVANTAGES OF LIQUID FUELS:
Liquid fuels are more costly than the solid
fuels.
Liquid fuels give unpleasant odor during
incomplete combustion.
Special type of burners is required for
effective combustion.
Some amount of liquid fuels will escape
due to evaporation during storage.
Gaseous Fuels
ADVANTAGES OF GASEOUS FUELS:
Gaseous fuels have high calorific value
than solid fuels.
During burning they do not produce any
ash or smoke.
Compared to solid and liquid fuels, they
have high thermal efficiency.
They can be easily transported through the
pipes.
Gaseous Fuels
DISADVANTAGES OF GASEOUS FUELS:
They are highly inflammable and hence the
chances for fire hazards are high.
Since gases occupy a large volume, they
require large storage tanks.
PROPERTIES
DENSITY
Ratio of mass and volume.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY
- This is defined as the ratio of the weight of a
given volume of oil to the weight of the same
volume of water at a given temperature.
 Density@15C Specific Volume
-- -v-
Fuel

(kg/m3) (lb/ft3) (m3/1000 kg) (ft3 per ton)

Anthracite 720 - 850 45 - 53 1.2 - 1.4 42 - 50

Bituminous coal 690 - 800 43 - 50 1.2 - 1.5 45 - 52

Butane (gas) 2.5 0.16 400 14100

Charcoal, hard wood 149 9.3 6.7 240

Charcoal, soft wood 216 13.5 4.6 165

Coke 375 - 500 23.5 - 31 2.0 - 2.7 72 - 95

Diesel 1D1) 875 54.6 1.14 40.4

Diesel 2D1) 849 53 1.18 41.6

Diesel 4D1) 959 59.9 1.04 36.8

EN 590 Diesel 2) 820-845 51-53 1.18-1.22 42-43

Gas oil 825-900 51-56 1.1-1.2 36-43

Gasoline 715-780 45-49 1.3-1.4 45-49

 Density@15C Specific Volume
-- -v-
Fuel

(kg/m3) (lb/ft3) (m3/1000 kg) (ft3 per ton)

Fuel Oil No.13) 750-850 47-53 1.2-1.3 42-47

Fuel Oil No.23) 810-940 51-59 1.1-1.2 38-44

Heavy fuel oil 800-1010 50-63 1.0-1.3 35-44

Kerosene 775-840 48-52 1.2-1.3 42-46

Natural gas (gas) 0.7 - 0.9 0.04-0.06 1110-1430 39200-50400

Peat 310 - 400 19.5 - 25 2.5 - 3.2 90 - 115

Propane (gas) 1.7 0.11 590 20800

Wood 360 - 385 22.5 - 24 2.5 - 2.8 90 - 100


=

Where: = 1,000 kg/m3 = 1 kg/L = 62.4 lb/ft3

API Units

141.5
API = 131.5
SG @ 15.6 C
Baume

140.5
Baume = 130.5
SG @ 15.6 C
Specific gravity with correction factors
due to temperature effect:

SGt = SG@15.6 C [1 0.0007 (t2-t1)]

Where: t1 = 15.6C
Sample Problem

Fuel oil in a day tank for use of an

industrial boiler is tested with
hydrometer. The hydrometer reading
indicates a S.G. = 0.924 when the
temperature of the ooil tank is 35 deg.
Celsius. Calculate the higher heating
value of the fuel in kJ/kg.
VISCOSITY
- The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its internal
resistance to flow.
- Viscosity depends on temperature and decreases
as the temperature increases. Any numerical value
for viscosity has no meaning unless the
temperature is also specified.
- Viscosity is measured in Stokes / Centistokes.
Sometimes viscosity is also quoted in Engler,
Saybolt or Redwood.
Each type of oil has its own temperature - viscosity
relationship. The measurement of viscosity is made
with an instrument called Viscometer.
Viscosity Index is the rate of change of
viscosity with respect to its temperature
Absolute viscosity is a viscosity which is
determined by means of direct
measurement resistance to shear
Kinematic viscosity is the ratio of
absolute viscosity to the density
FLASH POINT
The flash point of a fuel is the lowest temperature at
which the fuel can be heated so that the vapor gives off
flashes momentarily when an open flame is passed over it.
Flash point for furnace oil is 66 deg. C.
 Flash Point
Fuel
(oF)

Acetaldehyde -36

Acetone 0

Benzene 12

Biodiesel 266

Carbon Disulfide -22

Diesel Fuel (1-D) 100

Diesel Fuel (2-D) 126

Diesel Fuel (4-D) 130

Ethyl Alcohol, Ethanol 63

Fuels Oil No.1 100 - 162

Fuels Oil No.2 126 - 204

Fuels Oil No.4 142 - 240

Fuels Oil No.5 Lite 156 - 336

Fuels Oil No.5 Heavy 160 - 250

Fuels Oil No.6 150

 Gasoline -45

Gear oil 375 - 580

Iso-Butane -117

Iso-Pentane less than -60

Iso-Octane 10

Jet fuel (A/A-1) 100 - 150

Kerosene 100 - 162

Methyl Alcohol 52

Motor oil 420 - 485

n-Butane -76

n-Pentane less than -40

n-Hexane -7

n-Heptane 25

n-Octane 56

Naphthalene 174

NeoHexane -54

Propane -156

Styrene 90

Toluene 40

Xylene 63
Fire point is the temperature of oil at
which is burns continuously when
ignited
POUR POINT
- The pour point of a fuel is the lowest temperature at
which it will pour or flow when cooled under prescribed
conditions.
- It is a very rough indication of the lowest temperature at
which fuel oil is readily pumpable.
Dropping point is the
temperature at which grease starts
to melt
SPECIFIC HEAT
- Specific heat is the amount of kcals needed
to raise the temperature of 1 kg of oil by 1
deg. C. The unit of specific heat is kcal/kg
deg. C.
- It varies from 0.22 to 0.28 depending on the
oil specific gravity.
Octane number the ignition quality rating
of gasoline
Cetane number the ignition quality rating
of diesel
Air Fuel ratio of solid fuels
Theoretical Air Fuel ratio

A/F = air fuel ratio = ma-mf

O
Theoretical A/F = 11.5 C + 34.5 (H - ) + 4.3 S
8
Actual Air Fuel ratio

kg air
Actual A/F = (Theoretical A/F) (1 + e),
kg fuel

Where: e is the excess air

Typical Combustion Reaction of
Liquid Fuels
Molecular Weights:

C = 12 H = 1O = 16 N = 14 S = 32

Molecular Weight of air = 28.92 kg/mol

 Air by volume:
Oxygen in air = 21%
Nitrogen in air = 79%
3.76 of N2 per mol of O2
Air by weight:
Oxygen = 23.2%
Nitrogen = 76.8%
Theoretical Air Fuel ratio

Fuel + Air = Product of Combustion

CnHm + xO2 + x(3.76)N2 = yCO2 + zH2O + x(3.76)N2

Where: x, y, and z represent the number of moles

2n+m/2
For perfect combustion: x =
2
Theoretical air fuel ration = ma/mf
Molal Basis:

mol of air
Theoretical Air Fuel Ratio = x + 3.76x,
mol of fuel

Mass Basis:

32x+28 3.76 x kg air

Theoretical Air Fuel Ration = ,
12n+m kg fuel
Actual Air Fuel ratio
Considering the excess air, e
Fuel + Air = Product of Combustion
CnHm + (1+e)xO2 +(1+e)x(3.76)N2 = yCO2 + zH2O +
(1+e)x(3.76)N2 + exO2

Where: x,y, and z represent the number of moles

2n+m/2
For perfect combustion: x=
2
mt = total moles of the product
mt = y + z + (1+e)x(3.76) + ex
Partial Pressure of H2O

z
Partial Pressure of H2O = P
mt

P = pressure
Use P = 101.325 kPa if not given in the problem
Actual Air Fuel ratio

kg air
Actual A/F = (Theoretical A/F)(1+e),
kg fuel
By mass balance in the engine

ma + mf = mg

Where: ma = mass of air entering the engine

mf = mass of fuel entering the engine
mg = mass of gas leaving the engine
Sample Problem

The following ultimate analysis of a

typical fuel oil, ash and moisture
free: C = 0.8663 lb, H = 0.1227 lb, O
= 0.0019 lb, N = 0.0028 lb, S =
0.0163 lb. Calculate total mass of
flue gas (lb flue gas/lb of fuel).
Sample Problem

A fuel gas has the following volumetric

analysis: CH4 = 68% C2H6 = 32%.
Assume complete combustion with
at 101.325 kPa, 21 C
15% excess air wet

bulb and 27C dry bulb. What is the
partial pressure of the water vapour in
kPa? Calculate also the partial pressure
of CO2 in the product.