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CROP PRODUCTION
Crop production can be viewed from two perspectives:
1 at the CROP level
2 at the SYSTEMS level
Y = f [G + E + (G x E)]
where, Y = yield
G = genotype
E = environment
G x E = interaction of genotype and environment
Genotype and Environment
6. Gaseous environment
Carbon dioxide
hardly limiting in crop production except at no or little
air circulation in dense plant populations
critical in enclosed environments like greenhouses
Air pollution
becomes crucial as the world becomes more
industrialized
toxic substances: lead, sulfur dioxide, smog, carbon
monoxide, hydrofluoric acid (HF)
Cloudiness
7. Cloudiness
cloud, including smog and fog, affect the amount of radiation
received by plants. Most of the solar radiation is reflected by
clouds.
clouds are also believed to be responsive for the
GREENHOUSE EFFECT:
- clouds, acting similarly as the glass covering of a greenhouse,
stop the transfer of thermal radiant energy from the earth to the
cold sky thereby slowing down the cooling process of the earth.
- on the global scale air and water molecules present on clouds
trap long-wave radiation and reduce their outward flow to the
space because the shorter wave lengths reaching the earths
surface when re-radiated as longer waves cannot pass through
the clouds as readily as the shorter wavelengths.
CLASSIFICATION OF PHILIPPINE
CLIMATE (Corona Classification)
1. Typhoon
2. Ozone Destruction
3. Global warming
4. El Nio/La Nia
5. Acid rain
6. Lahar
Typhoon
1. Typhoon and weather variations
Typhoon - strong winds with speed greater than
121 kph.
tropical storm typhoon
depression
- usually originate from the Pacific Ocean;
circulation (800 km diameter) with a low
central pressure (-72 cm Hg) with air spirals
towards the calm eye (30 km diameter)
Ozone layer
2. Destruction of the ozone layer
reported to be 50% (Antartica)
Ozone protective shield against the harmful
UV rays
- it is 6-30 miles above the earth
Harmful effects:
a. Depressed photosynthesis
b. Reduced levels of seed protein, lipids and
carbohydrates
c. Deleterious effects on human (skin cancer, etc.)
Global warming
3. Global Warming
increased concentration of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere
Carbon dioxide concentration might double to around
600ppm in 30-75 years
Methane gas contributes to global warming
Results to high atmospheric temperature which affect
the ocean level by a few mm per year
Ingress of saline water to a 15km distance inland
Ocean levels will rise by as much as 30 cm in year
2010 and up to 150 cm by 2050
El Nio
4. EL NIO
What is El Nio?
a periodic ocean warming and atmospheric
disturbance characterized by deficient rainfall or
prolonged drought in some areas, while heavy rains,
storms or hurricanes occur in other areas of the globe
for the past 30 years, the Philippines has been hit by
some seven (7) El Nio episodes.
The 1982-83 episode is rated as the most intense in
the past century
The 1997-98 episode, has comparable intensity
bringing immense damage to Philippine crops,
water/electric supply aside from contributing to
poisoning of sea foods (red tide)
El Nio
Origin of El Nio
From the Spanish word meaning Boy child or
Little child
Used to be considered as a local event along
the coasts of Peru and Ecuador - describing
the appearance of warm ocean currents
flowing the South and Central American coasts
around Christmas time - believing that the
temporary heavy harvest of fish was a gift of
the Christ child.
El Nio
El Nio Watch
El Nio occurs in the Pacific Basin
every 2 to 9 years. It usually starts
during the Northern winter (December to
February). Once established, it lasts until
the first half of the following year,
although at times, it stays longer. It
exhibits phase-locking in annual cycles.
El Nio
Climatic indicators of El Nio in the
Philippines include
delayed onset of the rainy season
early termination of the rainy season
weak monsoon activity
weak tropical cyclones activity
El-Nio is said to be triggered when the strong
westward-blowing trade winds weaken and
reverse direction.
El Nio
Effects of El Nio
a. fish kill especially cold water fish
- tuna and milkfish catch declines
b. decrease in yield for most crops
c. human death
Acid rain
5. Acid rain
Sulfur dioxide produces S which is
released from natural sources and
human activities
Oxides of S and water will produce acid
rain
Lahar
6. Lahar
Mt. Pinatubo eruption in the early 1990s
lead to decreased in agricultural
lands resulting to low production
EDAPHIC FACTORS
A. What is soil?
air
water
mineral water (25%)
organic
matter + organisms
Soil as a three-phase system
Physical
Chemical crops
Biological
soil properties
Physical properties
1. Physical Properties
1.1 Soil Texture
- the relative proportion of primary soil particles, i.e., sand, silt
and clay in a particular soil
particle size
sand > .02
silt .02-.002
clay < .002
- soil texture range:
sand loam clay
<10% ~equal >4.5%
clay proportion of sand clay
S, H and clay
Physical properties
blocky
granular
columnar
no structure
Physical properties
Importance:
prevents loss of nutrients by forming complexes with
nutrient elements
facilties absorption and percolation of water into and
through the soil
increases water holding capacity
source of nutrients
improves penetration of roots
influences soil structure formation
influences soil chemical properties may contain N, P,
S, B, Zn
determines the biotic composition
Physical properties
2. Chemical Properties
2.1 Soil pH or soil-reaction
degree of acidity or alkalinity
influences nutrient availability
negative logarithm of H+ activity
7.0 neutral pH (H+ = OH-)
decrease in soil pH acidity
increase in soil pH alkalinity
Chemical Properties
pH Effects
pH below 5.0 Al, Fe & Mn become toxic
Ca & Mo deficiency
pH below 5.5 Mo, Za, K & S deficiency
pH 6-7 (neutral) most nutrients are in
available form
pH above 7.5 Al toxicity, salinity, Zn & Fe
toxicity
pH above 8.0 formation of Ca phosphates
pH above 8.5 salinity, Zn & Fe deficiency
Chemical Properties
Particular me/100g
Humus 600
Good clay (Montmorillonite) 80 to 150
Not good clay (Kaolinite) 3 to 15
Sand 0
Good soil 20 above
Bad soil 5 and below
3. Biological Properties
3.1 Macroscopic organisms
3.2 Microscopic organisms
a. Fungi
b. Actinomycetes and protozoa = decomposers
(aerobic)
c. Bacteria (billion/g topsoil)
- Thiobacillus oxidizes S sulfate form
- Auxotrophic bacteria oxidizes Mn & Fe to less
available form
- Nitrifying bacteria
- N fixing bacteria
d. Blue-green algae Nitrogen fixation
Biological Properties
Philippine soils
2.4% OM
high fertility >3.5%
medium2-3.5%
low <2%
Soil Organisms
Macro - small mammals, insects
Fauna (springtails, ants, beetles, grubs), millipedes,
centipedes, sowbugs, mites, slugs, snails,
earthworms, spiders
Actinomycetes
Benefits from Earthworms
Burrowing channels for drainage and aeration, entry
of other animals, entry of water, nutrients, roots
Mix the soil, plows the soil
Incorporates crop residues
Contribute to OM
Humus enrichment
Improves soil structure
Control pests (e.g., leaf miner pupa, scub pathogen)
Nutrient recycling
Topography
Decomposers
an important part in the food chain which is related to
energy flow in a crop production system.
a trophic level, usually consisting soil microorganisms (soil
biotic factors)
specifically important in the maintenance of soil organic
matter.
Natural pest enemies
provide balance in a crop production system particularly in
the control of pests
as bio-control agents against pests
Biotic factors
1.1 Pests
a collective term that includes insect
pests, diseases, weeds, invertebrates and
vertibrates
has always been a major limiting factor in
crop production!
Damage can go as high as 100%!
Genetic Factors
GENETIC FACTORS
Include all factors internal to the plant.
1. Genotype the genetic design of a
plant which dictates the ceiling of how
much a variety/cultivar can yield.
Genome sets the ultimate limit for
plant variation
Genetic factors
2. Selection indices of major Philippine crops:
The choice of variety is one of the most critical
decisions in crop production.
Technologies required in growing a certain
crops are dependent on the characteristics of
a particular variety especially:
growth characteristics
quality of the product
market acceptability
Genetic factors
2. Farmers capability
depends on: resources knowledge
most Filipino farmers are resource-poor
our culture is very rich in indigenous
knowledge particularly about farming
3. Management
a result of 1 and 2
goes along with eco-social-political realities