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FCE 3400

Teknologi Pendidikan
Sejarah Teknologi Pendidikan
• Some people say that educational technology
began thousands of years ago during a “time
when tribal priests systematized bodies of
knowledge and early cultures invented
pictographs or sign writing to record,
preserve, transmit, and reproduce information”
(Saettler) that could be taught to future
generations.
• Other people think that it started with the
invention of the pencil and paper. One thing
is for sure though; educational technology sure
has come a long way over the years.
Sejarah ..
Aside from the hieroglyphics and pictographs used by
the ancients and the papyrus scrolls developed long
ago for paper, one might trace the root of educational
technology back to the Abacus developed in
Babylon in 500 B.C. This mechanical aid was the
first counting aid which could be used to make quick
calculations. Although it was very primitive as it
consisted of wooden pebbles that could be slid up or
down various rods and wires it is often credited as one
of the first calculating devices ever created and the
beginning of “technology” (History of Educational
Technology).
Sejarah..
Calculators, which were first invented in the 1600’s
by Blaise Pascal (Roblyer), are still used today in
math education as well as other subjects to assist
students. They allow quick calculations to be made
and reduce the amount of time students need to
complete problems. Of course these calculators
have evolved over the years from the original
mechanical calculators to the graphing and
scientific calculators that exist today. Nowadays
calculators can provide visuals, solve equations,
perform functions, and much more.
Sejarah …
• With the invention of the phonograph in the late
1800’s, students obtained access to music,
speeches, and other auditory sounds of the past
which was able to add a new dimension to learning
(Woodall).
• The radio, invented in 1896 by Marconi also
contributed to this new auditory dimension.
• As the 20th Century progressed, many more
advancements were made in the audio field
including the development of audio tape recorders,
cassette tapes, CD’s, etc. that brought new sources
of information into the classroom (Woodall).
Sejarah ..
• In 1893 the first motion picture was created by Thomas
Armat and this opened up a visual learning dimension that
could be carried over into the classroom.
• In the early 1900’s “schools and museums began using
visuals such as drawings, paintings, slides, film
objects and models to compliment verbal instruction”
(History of Instructional Technology). These new visual
forms of technology were found to greatly supplement
instruction thus setting in motion the idea of educational/
instructional technology.
• Today, visuals are still key components of instruction.
Films, photographs, computer simulations, etc. allow
students to visualize different people, places, and concepts
therefore significantly enhancing their learning.
Sejarah ..
• Computers, which were first used in WWII for
military purposes, have become one of the greatest
contributors to educational technology. Evolving
from the electronic computers used in the 1940’s
to mini-computers of the 1960’s and then finally to
micro-computer systems in 1980’s computers
have advanced greatly (Roblyer).
• Just in the past 20 years the creation of the Internet
as well as multiple software and virtual programs
has occurred. This advancement in technology has
had a huge impact on educational technology.
Masa Kini..
• At this time there are many programs and technological
equipment designated solely for use in an educational
setting.
• We now have programs such as HyperStudio, Microsoft
FrontPage, Swish, PowerPoint, and many others that
allow educators to create presentations and interactive
activities for their students.
• There are overhead projectors, computers, white
boards, radios, televisions, VCRs, DVD players, and
many other forms of technology that are commonly found in
classrooms.
• All of these improvements in the field of educational
technology that have been made over the years go to show
that this is a field that is constantly evolving and changing.
Masa Kini..
• As advancements in technology are made
educators and schools try to find as many ways
as possible to incorporate these forms of
technology into their classrooms.
• Who knows what types of technology the future
has in store for educational settings. One thing
is for sure though, people have realized how
valuable educational technology is in the
classroom and it is likely to continue to be used
for a very long time.
Istilah Teknologi Pendidikan

• It is common to use the term 'technologies' to


mean things like computers, overhead
projectors, or interactive television .
• However, more correctly, technologies are not
just pieces of equipment, but rather the
knowledge, skills and values employed to
develop and use such equipment for personal
or social purposes.
Istilah …
• Therefore, printed characters (which we would call letters)
are nothing more than ink on paper without language and
literacy. But print is not an educational technology of itself. It
becomes an educational technology when language and
literacy-together with educational theories and
practices-are marshaled through and with print for
educational purposes.
• An educational technology, therefore, is more of a social
and cultural, rather than a physical, artifact.
• Nearly twenty years ago, David Hawkridge described
educational technology 'as the systematic application of
scientific or other organized knowledge to the practical
tasks of education' . Although, his definition is based on the
scientific, rather than the social and cultural more broadly, it
does emphasize that technology exists beyond the tool.
Teknologi
Pendidikan Hari Ini
• Today we often discuss educational technology with an
over emphasis on computers and the Internet.
• In reality however, educational technology is not only
limited to those devices but also to devices such as
televisions, radios, laserdiscs, tape recorders,
overheads, CDROMs, whiteboards and a plethora of
other devices that enhances the process of teaching and
learning.
• We should also be reminded that in addition to devices,
educational technology also compasses the theories of
learning and instructional design that incorporate the
research or knowledge based systematic processes
by which we seek to make teaching and learning a more
effective endeavor.
Komputer dan Internet
• What makes the personal computer and the Internet
stand out as educational technology media is that
they represent the possibility of success where
traditional technologies such as radio and
television have proven to be more ineffective than
traditionally anticipated. Technologies such as the
motion picture and radio were seen as instruments
that would revolutionize the educational process.
These devices however lacked one important
element in content delivery. They lacked the ability
to allow the learner to interact with the instructor,
with other learners or with the content in an engaging
and dynamic fashion.
Komputer dan Internet

• Computers and the Internet represent


real possibilities of enhancing teaching
and learning through dynamic,
interactive and engaging content. Unlike
radio or television, through the use of
computers, the learner can interact with
the learning materials and with the
instructor.
Kelebihan Komputer
dan Internet
• Another important  element for the proliferation
of personal computers as effective tools of
educational technology is the fact that personal
computers can have real application in offering
individualized instruction. An instructor in a
class of many students can, through the use of a
personal computer and software give
individual students an  opportunity to work
on problem areas or work on new content by
themselves in an a way that supports individual
learning style or learning pace.
Internet dan
Teknologi Pendidikan
• The Internet and networking offer a unique
possibility for offering interactive education
across distances and to multiple audiences.
This means that learners in one location
can have quick, easy and secure access to
their peers or to other subject matter
experts in some other country.
Oleh itu Teknologi Pendidikan
ialah:
• Educational technology is a creative blending of "idea" and
"product" technologies with subject-matter content in order
to engender and improve teaching and learning processes.
• Educational technology is often associated with the terms
instructional technology or learning technology.
• "Product" technologies are tangible; for example, computer
hardware or software.
• "Idea" technologies are cognitive frameworks or schemes;
for example, the Multiple Intelligence Theory proposed by
Howard Gardner. When products are thoughtfully blended
with subject matter content (such as mathematics or science
concepts) for a specific audience in a specific educational
context (such as a school), one is using "educational
technology."
• The words educational and technology in the term
educational technology have the general meaning.
Educational technology is not restricted to the education
of children, nor to the use of high technology.
• The particular case of the meaningful use of high-
technology to enhance learning in school classrooms and
higher education is known as technology integration.
• The term is distinct from technology education:
educational technology is about using technology to
educate, whereas technology education is learning
about technology.
• Several universities have recently opened tracks for
graduate programs in the field of Educational
Technology.
Peranan Guru
• Teachers are facilitators who guide the
students in the process of their learning. They
need to construct meaningful, interactive,
lessons that engage the students in the
curriculum.
• Teachers need to be fully aware of the
technology that engages students on a daily
basis, and use that technology as a stepping
stone to build upon in the classroom.
The Importance Of Technology
In The Classroom.

• Technology is a powerful tool that can be


used in the engaged learning process. This
process creates a classroom that is an
environment for a continuous learning
community
Implications To Teachers (1) …

 There has to be changing roles to accompany these


wonderful teaching and learning facilitation,
otherwise, nothing will change either.
 From lecturer to consultant, mentor and resource
provider – leading towards learning facilitation rather
than knowledge transmission;
 The lecturer becomes an expert questioner rather
than provider of answers (but you better know the
answers too) – a question bank and a variety of
activities and quizzes will have to be prepared;
Implications To Teachers (2) …

 The teacher now becomes the designer of learning


experiences of students rather than just content
providers
 Teacher must now provide the initial structure (only)
to the students work, thus encouraging self-direction
and subsequent learning strategies developed by the
students themselves that utilises CMC;
 Teacher must now provide multiple perspectives on
topics, emphasising the salient points and the
principles for better understanding rather than to
regurgitate the readily available content;
Implications To Teachers (3) …

 Solitary teachers may now have to form learning


team in this endeavour leading to the demise of
total autonomy of the lecturer towards activities
that can be broadly assessed;
 From total control of the environment by the
lecturer to sharing with the students as fellow
learners and knowledge builders;

 More emphasise to the learning preferences of the


students (within limits of course);

 Post-digital literacy and competencies can be a


shared experience between teachers and learners
Implikasi Teknologi Pendidikan

• Overtaken by Technology
• Approaching Technogogy
• Pedagogically articulated pivoting on
technology
• New paradigms in the LE
• New Learning objects
• New role of the teacher
• Smarter teachers, pupils and schools
Definisi TP…
• Bukan semata-mata alat, tetapi merangkumi
idea dan proses (Heinich, 1996)
• Penyatuan antara idea, manusia, mesin, cara
dan kaedah pengendalian dan pengurusan
(Hoban, 1976)
• Technology is not a tool – it is an art or science
of how to use a tool for a purpose (Evans &
Nation, 2000)
• The systematic application of scientific or other
organized knowledge to practical task (Galbraith,
1967)
Definisi TP …
• Penggunaan pengetahuan saintifik tentang
bagaimana manusia belajar d ke dalam amalan-
amalan pengajaran dan pembelajaran yang
praktikal (Heinich et. al. 1993)
• TP ialah kombinasi proses dan alatan yang
terlibat dalam usaha menyahut keperluan dan
masalah pendidikan, dengan penekanan kepada
proses mengaplikasi alatan terkini seperti
komputer dan teknologi berkaitan (Roblyer &
Edward, 2000)
Definisi TP oleh AECT
• AECT (1972) (Association for Educational Communications and
Technology): TP ialah satu bidang yang melibatkan usaha
mempermudahkan pembelajaran manusia, melalui;
– Pertama, proses mengenalpasti secara sistematik
pembangunan organisasi dan penggunaan pelbagai sumber
pembelajaran.
– Kedua, melalui pengurusan proses-proses tersebut.
• AECT (1977): TP ialah sesuatu yang kompleks, proses
integasi yang melibatkan manusia, prosedur, idea, alatan
dan organisasi bagi menganalisis masalah dan
mengawal, menjalankan, menilai serta mengurus
masalah yang terlibat dalam semua aspek pembelajaran
manusia.
Definisi TP oleh AECT

AECT (1994): TP adalah teori dan amalan


tentang mereka bentuk, membangun,
mengguna, mengurus dan menilai proses
serta sumber-sumber untuk pembelajaran.
Definisi TP 2004

• Molenda dan Robinson (2004) –


Educational Technology is the study and
ethical practice of facilitating learning and
improving performance by creating, using,
and managing appropriate technological
processes and resources
Perkembangan Teknologi
Pendidikan di Malaysia
• Pra dan pos merdeka: perkembangan bahan visual dan
pandang dengar.
• 1970an: pengaruh media komunikasi – Radio dan TV
Pendidikan.
• 1980 – 1990: perkembangan pengajaran berasaskan
sumber dan pendidikan komputer.
• 1990 – 2000: Era Teknologi Maklumat dan Komunikasi
(TMK/ICT)
• 2000 - :Penggunaan perisian komputer dan internet
dalam pendidikan, web based learning, e-learning, video,
audio and computer conferencing.
Conditions of Learning (R. Gagne)

Overview:
In addition, the theory outlines nine instructional events and
corresponding cognitive processes:
(1) gaining attention (reception)
(2) informing learners of the objective (expectancy)
(3) stimulating recall of prior learning (retrieval)
(4) presenting the stimulus (selective perception)
(5) providing learning guidance (semantic encoding)
(6) eliciting performance (responding)
(7) providing feedback (reinforcement)
(8) assessing performance (retrieval)
(9) enhancing retention and transfer (generalization).
Example:
The following example illustrates a teaching sequence corresponding
to the nine instructional events for the objective, Recognize an
equilateral triangle:
1. Gain attention - show variety of computer generated triangles
2. Identify objective - pose question: "What is an equilateral
triangle?"
3. Recall prior learning - review definitions of triangles
4. Present stimulus - give definition of equilateral triangle
5. Guide learning- show example of how to create equilateral
6. Elicit per formance - ask students to create 5 different
examples
7. Provide feedback - check all examples as correct/incorrect
8. Assess performance- provide scores and remediation
9. Enhance retention/transfer - show pictures of objects and ask
students to identify equilaterals
Model ID Dick and Carey
Stage 1. Instructional Goals
•Instructional Goal: Desirable state of affairs by instruction
* Needs Analysis : Analysis of a discrepancy between an instructional
goal and the present state of affairs or a personal perception of needs.

Stage 2. Instructional Analysis


* Purpose : To determine the skills involved in reaching a goal
* Task Analysis (procedural analysis) : about the product of which
would be a list of steps and the skills used at each step in the
procedure
* Information-Processing Analysis : about the mental operations used
by a person who has learned a complex skills
* Learning-Task Analysis : about the objectives of instruction that
involve intellectual skills
Stage 3. Entry Behaviors and Learner Characteristics
•Purpose : To determine which of the required enabling skills the
learners bring to the learning task
* Intellectual skills
* Abilities such as verbal comprehension and spatial orientation
* Traits of personality

Stage 4. Performance Objectives


* Purpose : To translate the needs and goals into specific and detailed
objectives
* Functions : Determining whether the instruction related to its goals.
           Focusing the lesson planning upon appropriate conditions of
learning
           Guiding the development of measures of learner performance
           Assisting learners in their study efforts.
Stage 5. Criterion-Referenced Test Items
*To diagnose an individual possessions of the necessary prerequisites
for learning new skills
*To check the results of student learning during the process of a lesson
*To provide document of students progress for parents or
administrators
*Useful in evaluating the instructional system itself (Formative/
Summative evaluation)
*Early determination of performance measures before development of
lesson plan and instructional materials
Stage 6. Instructional Strategy
* Purpose : To outline how instructional activities will relate to the
accomplishment of the objectives
*The best lesson design : Demonstrating knowledge about the learners,
tasks reflected in the objectives, and effectiveness of teaching
strategies
    e.g. Choice of delivering system.
           Teacher-led, Group-paced vs. Learner-centered, Learner-paced
Stage 7. Instructional Meterials
•Purpose : To select printed or other media intended to convey events
of instruction.
* Use of existing materials when it is possible
* Need for development of new materials, otherwise
* Role of teacher : It depends on the choice of delivery system

Stage 8. Formative Evaluation


* Purpose : To provide data for revising and improving instructional
materials
* To revise the instruction so as to make it as effective as possible for
larger number of students
* One on One : One evaluator sitting with one learner to interview
* Small Group
* Field Trial
Stage 9. Summative Evaluation
* Purpose : To study the effectiveness of system as a whole
* Conducted after the system has passed through its formative stage
* Small scale/ Large Scale
* Short period/ Long period
People generally remember …

• 10% of what they read

• 20% of what they hear

• 30% of what they see

• 50% of what they hear and see - video

• 70% of what they say or write

• 90% of what they say as they do something


Interpreting the Cone

• The cone is based on the relationships of

various educational experiences to reality (real life).

• The bottom level of the cone, "direct

purposeful experiences," represents reality or the


closest things to real, everyday life.
Model Perancangan Pengintegrasian
Teknologi (Technology Integration
Planning Model – TIP)

Mempunyai lima fasa:


Fasa 1
Tentukan faedah atau kelebihan relatif.
Fasa 2
Tentukan objektif dan pengukuran.
Fasa 3
Reka bentuk strategi pengintegrasian.
Fasa 4
Sediakan situasi pengajaran.
Fasa 5
Nilai dan semak strategi pengintegrasian
SEKIAN
TERIMA KASIH

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