THEORISTS

PROJECT
Dora Hernndez
Regent University
EFND 724
Introduction
Theories of learning are fundamental for educators to have reference frameworks
that allow them to interpret, reflect and improve their practices. Four different
matrices are presented below, regarding the main theories of learning.
Matrix 1 address six major learning theories. This matrix addresses a short definition
of each theory, as well as some of the theorists and models that represent them.
Matrix 2 presents key theories. In the first column, the respective representative of
that theory is indicated and, in the second column, a short definition is integrated.
The third column provides a reflection and application of what can be learned.
Matrix 3 presents information on two theorists: Anne Treisman and Fergus Craik.
Matrix 4 integrates some final thoughts regarding the theories.
Matrix 1
Major Learning Short definition Theorists / Models
Theories

Behaviorism Behaviorism dominated the field of learning Watson (father of behaviorism)

theories as a psychological discipline during the Pavlov (conditioning model)
first half of the 20th century. Guthrie (contiguous conditioning)
This theory considered that to have a scientific Skinner (operant conditioning)
status as discipline, it was necessary that its Thorndike (connectionism / trial
object of study (behavior) was observable and and error)
measurable.
Behaviorism considers learning as a process of
forming associations between stimuli and
responses (Schunk, 2016, p.113). This theory
does not study mental processes, but focuses on
the behavioral changes produced by stimuli and
reinforcements.
Matrix 1
Major Learning Short definition Theorists / Models
Theories

Social Learning Social Learning Theory maintains that people Bandura (observational learning)
Theory learn from their social environments. This theory
argues that learning can happen by observation,
and that is not necessary for the learner to carry
out the actions. In this way, reinforcement is not
necessary for learning to occur. As Schunk (2016)
said Learning occurs enactively through actual
performances and vicariously by observing
models, listening to instructions, and engaging
with print or electronic content (p.156).
Matrix 1
Major Learning Short definition Theorists / Models
Theories
Cognitive This perspective considers the development of Newell and Simon (problem
Learning Theory competences in different domains as a process of solving)
acquisition of skills. This process requires Wallas (four-stage model)
knowledge of the facts, principles, and concepts Gagn (conditions of learning)
of that domain, coupled with general strategies Bruner (cognitive growth)
that can be applied across domains and specific Flavell (metacognition)
strategies that pertain to each domain (Schunk,
2016, p.292).
Metacognition, as the deliberate, conscious
control of mental activities (Schunk, 2016,
p.292) is central to learning from this approach.
Other important elements for this theory are
concept learning, problem solving, critical
thinking, reasoning, creativity, cognition and
technology, and instructional applications.
Matrix 1
Major Learning Short definition Theorists / Models
Theories

Constructivism Constructivism is an epistemology, that is to say, a Piaget (cognitive development)

philosophical explanation regarding the nature of Bruner (cognitive growth)
learning. Constructivists reject scientific truths Vygotsky (sociocultural theory)
and expect discovery and verification. In this
sense, knowledge is built internally and is not
something that can be imposed from the outside.
Schunk (2016) noted, Constructivist theories
vary from those that postulate complete self-
construction, through those that hypothesize
socially mediated constructions, to those that
argue that constructions match reality (p.336).
Matrix 1
Major Learning Short definition Theorists / Models
Theories

Adult Learning This theory, born in the 70s, comprises what is Knowles (andragogy)
Theory known about how adults learn. Adult Learning Illeris (three dimensions of
Theory assumes Knowless model, which lies in learning)
the following assumptions about adults: Jarvis (learning process)
McCluskey (theory of margin)
(a) they are more self-directed than dependent; Mezirow (theory of
(b) their accumulation of experiences is a rich transformative learning)
resource for learning; (c) their readiness to learn
is directly related to the tasks required in their
social roles; (d) they are more subject centered
than problem centered in learning; (e) they find
internal motivations more powerful than external
ones; and (f) they need to know why it is
important to learn something (Sullivan, 2009,
p.13).
Matrix 1
Major Short definition Theorists / Models
Learning
Theories
Connectivism Connectivism is social learning that is networked. Downes Siemens and Downes
described it as, the thesis that knowledge is distributed (connectivism)
across a network of connections, and therefore that learning Luis Mateus Rocha (self-
consists of the ability to construct and traverse those organization)
networks (as cited in Siemens, 2005, p.1). Albert-Lszl Barabsi
Connectivism is born in todays society, which is complex, (nodes)
rapidly changing, connected, global, and mediated by Karen Stephenson
increasing advancements in technology. Learning (defined (quantum theory of trust)
as actionable knowledge) can reside outside learners (within
an organization or a database), is focused on connecting
specialized information sets, and the connections that
enable people to learn more are more important than their
current state of knowing (Siemens, 2005, p.1).
Matrix 2
Key Theories Short description
Socio-Cultural Vygotskys sociocultural theory underlines
(Vygotsky) the social environment as a catalyst of
development and learning. The social
environment impacts cognition through its
tools -cultural objects, language, symbols,
and social institutions. Schunk (2016)
indicated that, from this perspective,
Cognitive change results from using
these tools in social interactions and from
internalizing and transforming these
interactions. A key concept is the zone of
proximal development, which signifies the
amount of learning possible by a student
given proper instructional conditions
(Schunk, 2016, p.337).
Reflect and apply what can be learned
Learning is enhanced when people are
able to socialize it. For example, it is not
surprising that when talking to another
person about a problem, individuals
could see the solution more clearly by
simply verbalizing their ideas. The
feedback they receive results in the
possibility of establishing new ideas and
connections.
Applications that reflect Vygotskys ideas
are instructional scaffolding, reciprocal
teaching, peer collaboration, and
apprenticeships. In this way, teachers can
facilitate learning by structuring learning
environments to promote interactions
between students.
Matrix 2
Key Theories Short description
Cognitive This theory postulates that individuals pass
(Piaget) through a series of qualitatively different
stages: sensorimotor, preoperational,
concrete operational, and formal
operational. According to Schunk (2016),
the chief developmental mechanism is
equilibration, which helps to resolve
cognitive conflicts by changing the nature of
reality to fit existing structures (assimilation)
or changing structures to incorporate reality
(accommodation) (p.337).
Thus, equilibration was relevant for Piaget
because through this process, internal
cognitive structures become consistent with
external reality (Schunk, 2016).
Reflect and apply what can be learned
Constructivist environments focus on
deeper understanding of learners, instead
of superficial or meaningless learning. This
implies a reflective and thoughtful teaching
that takes into account students previous
learnings and experiences, as well as their
interests and needs. This approach also
requires that the teacher takes into
account the students psychobiological
abilities (stages of development) when it
comes to propose learning experiences.
It can be emphasized of this theory the
power that is granted to the structuring of
the learning environments, as well as the
role of the teacher as facilitator of learning.
Matrix 2
Key Theories Short description
Observational This theory proposed that through
(Bandura) observation people learn, by simply
watching and thinking about the actions of
others. From this perspective, modeling and
imitation are sources of learning. In this
regard, Schunk (2016) noted that
Observational learning greatly expands the
scope of human learning possible.
Observational learning consists of four
processes: attention, retention, production,
and motivation (p.157).
Reflect and apply what can be learned
The main contribution of this theory to
education is the awareness of the role of
teachers as natural models for their
students. Teachers improve their
influence as models by being competent,
as well as by showing love and interest
for their students. It is evident that
learning is enhanced when the person
who represents the model is loved.
Schunk (2016) suggests at least three
areas where observational learning is
useful: (a) for learning motor skills,
through demonstration; (b) for learning
model attributes, through identification;
and (c) goal properties, by setting short-
term goals.
Matrix 2
Key Short description
Theories
Learning by In the 1960s, some behaviorists returned to
Doing John Locke, who focused on experience as the
(Maslow) source of all knowledge (Yount, 2010, p. 215).
In this sense, Maslow alleged that children will
make good choices when given the opportunity
in their classroom experiences. This theorist
suggested that teacher-directed classroom
management becomes less necessary, due to
the motivating power of self-chosen activities.
The learning experience itself becomes its own
reward. (Yount, 2010, p.314). For Maslow,
most human action represents an attempting to
satisfy needs (Schunk, 2016). Thus, people
learn by doing when they make choices and
seek control over their lives in order to satisfy
needs and goals.
Reflect and apply what can be learned
This perspective can be inspirational for
teachers to fix attractive and meaningful
learning situations and then let students
choose from the different offerings that
they find valuable.
Maslow hierarchy of needs (Schunk,
2016, p.348) helps teachers understand
that learning is not a process isolated
from the students needs and goals.
Thus, taking care of the students basic
needs is also part of their work, at least
in collaboration with other community
members. For example, a hungry
student will not learn the same as a
student with her or his basic needs met.
Matrix 2
Key Theories Short description
Constructivists Bruners view is called Discovery
(Bruner) Learning, and his initial ideas adhere to
Piaget, giving emphasis to students
discoveries. According to Yount (2010),
Bruner believed that the facts and
relationships children discover through
their own explorations are more usable
and tend to be better retained than
material they have merely committed to
memory (p. 241).
Schunk (2016) pointed out that Bruners
theory of cognitive growth discusses the
ways that learners represent knowledge:
enactively, iconically, and symbolically
(p.337).
Reflect and apply what can be learned
Bruners contribution is valuable in that
he advocates greater freedom in the
classroom by questioning methodologies
of linear programmed instruction. In this
sense, students can be more active and
more spontaneous in their learning. This
way, learning will be more meaningful. In
this world, full of challenges, an approach
that privileges problem solving and
initiative, is very necessary.
From this theory, students can represent
knowledge and recommends revisiting
learning through a spiral curriculum
(Schunk, 2016, p.310).
Matrix 2
Key Theories Short description
Tabula Rasa For Locke, all knowledge derives from
(Locke) two types of experience: sensory
impressions of the external world and
personal awareness. This theorist
believed that, at birth the mind is a
tabula rasa (blank tablet). This way,
ideas are obtained from sensory
impressions and personal reflections
on these impressions. What is in the
mind originated in the senses. The
mind is composed of ideas that have
been combined in different ways. The
mind can be understood only by
breaking down ideas into simple
units (Schunk, 2016, p.6).
Reflect and apply what can be learned
After the development of neuroscience and
cognitive sciences, it is clear that the mind is
not a tabula rasa, as Locke postulated.
However, the most important contribution
made by this theorist, along with the other
empiricists, was the realization that ideas are
not innate but mediated by experience. This
was the antecedent for other theories
nowdays recognize the value of experiences
in the construction of thought. In this sense,
although behaviorist teachers can apply
some of the ideas of behaviorism, as the
contingency contracts (Schunk, 2016,
p.112), the value of experiences will be
Lockes central contribution.
Matrix 2
Key Theories Short description
Hierarchy of Maslow believed that human actions are
Needs (Maslow) unified by being directed toward goal
attainment (Schunk, 2016, p.346). In
this sense, this theorist considered that
most human action represents a striving
to satisfy needs. According to Maslow,
Needs are hierarchical. Lower-order
needs have to be satisfied adequately
before higher-order needs can influence
behavior (Schunk, 2016, p.346).
Physiological needs are the lowest in the
hierarchy, followed by safety needs. In a
higher level there are belongingness
needs, followed by esteem needs. At the
highest level is the need for self-
actualization.
Reflect and apply what can be learned
Maslows hierarchy of needs is a useful
tool for understanding behavior. A
teacher cannot expect her students to
learn well in school if they are suffering
from physiological or safety deficiencies.
The hierarchy also provides educators
with clues concerning why students act
as they do. As Schunk (2016) pointed
out, Educators stress intellectual
achievement, but many adolescents are
preoccupied with belongingness and
esteem (p.348).
This understanding is very useful for
teachers so they can be aware of the
importance of creating environments to
enhance learning.
Matrix 2
Key Theories Short description
Experiential Rogers advocated meaningful,
(Rogers) experiential learning. Rogers thought that
learning that can be taught to others was
of little value. He believed in the students
responsibility for their own learning.
Rather than imparting learning, the
primary job of teachers is to act as
facilitators who establish a classroom
climate oriented toward significant
learning and help students clarify their
goals. Facilitators arrange resources so
that learning can occur and, because they
are resources, share their feelings and
thoughts with students. (Schunk, 2016,
p.350).
Reflect and apply what can be learned
Some methodologies, such as projects,
could have some of their foundations in
theories like this from Rogers. Facilitators
provide resources for students to use to
meet their needs. Students have
considerable freedom (i.e., self-
regulation) in deciding on goals and
timelines. It is based on the students
interest and commitment to his or her
learning. Still, according to Schunk
(2016), freedom itself should not be
imposed; students who want more
teacher direction should receive it.
Rogers advocated greater use of inquiry,
simulations, and self-evaluation as ways
to provide freedom (p. 350).
Matrix 2
Key Theories Short description
Operant Operant conditioning is based on the
Conditioning assumption that features of the
(Skinner) environment (stimuli, situations, events)
serve as cues for responding (Schunk,
2016, p. 113). The basic operant
conditioning model is a three-term
contingency engaging a discriminative
stimulus (antecedent), response
(behavior), and reinforcing stimulus
(consequence). The consequences of
behavior establish the likelihood that
people will respond to environmental
cues.
Reflect and apply what can be learned
Operant principles have been applied to
many facets of teaching and learning. As
Schunk (2016) noted, These principles
can be seen in applications involving
behavioral objectives, learning time,
mastery learning, computer-based
instruction, and contingency contracts.
Research evidence often shows positives
effects of these applications on student
achievement. Regardless of theoretical
orientation, one can apply behavioral
principles to facilitate student learning
and achievement (Schunk, 2016, p.
113).
Matrix 2
Key Theories Short description
Classsical Classical conditioning is a multistep
(Pavlov) procedure that initially involves presenting
an unconditioned stimulus (UCS), which
elicits an unconditioned response (UCR).
() To condition the animal requires
repeatedly presenting an initially neutral
stimulus immediately before presenting
the UCS. That neutral stimulus will
become a conditioned stimulus (CS) that
elicited a conditioned response (CR)
similar to the original UCR (Schunk,
2016, p. 79).
Reflect and apply what can be learned
The way in which Pavlov arrived at the
conclusions behind the classical
conditioning model has been much
criticized. His experimentation with
animals and this marked mechanicism
have made Pavlovs theories currently
very questioned.
However, the principle of behavior
modification remains a necessary issue
to address in the educational field.
Schunk (2016) presented an interesting
example of emotional conditioning (p.83).
Matrix 3: Anne
Treismann
Anne Treisman is a research psychologist born in
1935. She created models for testing visual
perception and analyzing how the brain combines
visual and auditory input in selective attention and
memory.
Treisman developed the Feature Integration Theory
(FIT). This theory explains how human vision
processes color, shape, size, light, motion, and other
input by creating and combining separate feature
maps that correspond to different areas of the
brain. Her research revealed that there are
neurological as well as behavioral or learned
explanations for attention, memory, and perception
(Wayne, 2011).
Matrix 3: Anne Treisman
Treismans early work focused on how attention can filter perceptual input,
permitting only potentially relevant information to reach consciousness. The
dominant theory at the time claimed a general, nonselective filtering mechanism.
Treisman used a selective listening paradigm to see what kinds of information get
through the general filter.

Robertson & Wolfe (2012) related one of their experiments: People

wore earphones and were instructed to attend to only one ear.
Messages in the attended ear were understood and remembered, those
in the unattended ear were filtered outthey were neither noticed nor
remembered. However, potentially important information, such as
mention of ones name in the unattended ear, is instantly noticed,
demonstrating that the attentional filter is selective (p. vi).
Matrix 3: Anne Treisman
From FIT theory, the perceived
objects in the world are initially
processed unconsciously. In a
second phase, the objects are
decomposed into its
characteristics (pre-attentive
stage), forming feature maps. In
a third phase, which requires an
adequate level of attention (the
focused attention stage), the
characteristics are
encompassed and identified as
a whole when compared to the
conceptual image of known
Image taken from https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Feature_Integration_Theory.png
objects.
Matrix 3: Anne Treisman
Sometimes, people distribute attention
across many sensory input, each of which
receives low-level processing. At other
times, people focus on a particular
sensory input, which is more cognitively
demanding. Rather than blocking out
messages, attention simply makes them
less salient than those being attended to.
Information inputs initially are subjected
to different tests for physical
characteristics and content. Following this
preliminary analysis, one input may be
selected for attention (Schunk, 2016, p.
174).
Image taken from http://www.perceptionsense.com/2011/07/feature-
integration-theory.html
Matrix 3: Anne Treisman

According to Treisman (2006),

Attention is a tool to adapt what
we see to our current needs. It can
be focused narrowly on a single
object or spread over several or
distributed over the scene as a
whole. In addition to increasing or
decreasing the number of attended
objects, these different
deployments may have different
effects on what we see (p. 411).

Taken from http://morzadec.es.free.fr/index.php?post/2012/12/04/%C2%BFD%C3%B3nde-est%C3%A1-Wally-Segunda-versi%C3%B3n

Matrix 3: Fergus Craik

Fergus Craik is a cognitive psychologist

born in 1935. He is known for his
research on Levels Of Processing (LOP)
in memory. His work was done in
collaboration with Robert Lockhart and
Endel Tulving.
Craik has received numerous awards
and is considered a leader in the area
of memory, attention and cognitive
aging.
Matrix 3: Fergus Craik
According to Craik (2002) one of the
main contributions of the levels-of-
processing (LOP) is the idea of
remembering as processing, as an
activity of mind, as opposed to
structural ideas of memory traces as
entities that must be searched for,
found, and reactivated (p. 306).
Craik (2002) suggested that memory-
encoding operations should be
conceptualised as the processes
underlying perception and
comprehension, and that retrieval was
the corollary of encoding (p. 306). Image taken from https://www.slideshare.net/CarolynOsborne/cognitive-1
Matrix 3: Fergus Craik

LOP theory conceptualizes memory according to the type of processing that

information receives, rather than its location (Schunk, 2016, p. 169).
This theory does not incorporate stages or structural components such as
short-term memory (STM) or long-term memory (LTM). Rather, it proposes
various ways to process information (such as levels or depth at which it is
processed):
Physical (surface)
Acoustic (phonological, sound)
Semantic (meaning)
These three levels are dimensional, with physical processing being the most
superficial, and semantic processing being the deepest (Schunk, 2016, p.
169).
Matrix 3: Fergus Craik

Example
(Schunk, 2016, p. 170)

Suppose you are reading and the next word in wren. This word can be processed on a
surface level (e.g., it is not capitalized), a phonological level (rhymes with den), or a
semantic level (small bird). Each level represents a more elaborate (deeper) type of
processing than the preceding level; processing the meaning of wren expands content
more than surface-level processing.
Wren can receive low-level semantic processing (small bird) or more extensive semantic
processing (its similarity to and difference from other birds).
 Matrix 3: Fergus
Craik
In levels of
processing, the
deeper the level at
which an item is
processed, the
better the memory
because the
memory trace is
more ingrained
(Schunk, 2016, p.
170).
Image taken from http://slideplayer.com/slide/2489531/
Matrix 4: Final thoughts
The study of learning theories comprises a fascinating journey through the different
perspectives and research on human beings an learning. For educators it is of great
importance to know and explore these theories, understanding their principles and
reflecting on their applications. As Schunk (2016) pointed out, practical experience
without theory is situationally specific and lacks an overarching framework to
organize knowledge of teaching and learning (p. 26).
From behaviorism to connectivism, integrating the most recent theories of the
cognitive processes within Treisman and Craiks work, this study has allowed me to
reflect on my own conceptions about learning.
The study of behaviorism has led me to consider the depth and purpose of learning.
Galatians 5:23 says, But the fruit of the Spirit is love, joy, peace () (NIV). All these
can be considered behaviors, but they are the fruit of a deeper transformation. In
this sense, the attention given to thoughts, attitudes and motivations goes beyond
the conditioning and reinforcement of behavioral responses.
Matrix 4: Final thoughts
The cognitive and constructivist theories, most recently supported by
the development of neurosciences, have allowed me to delve into the
complexity and wonder of the thought processes that underlie
learning.
Personally, I did not know researchers like Fergus Craik and Anne
Treisman. It has been a pleasant surprise to know their research,
especially knowing that they are still alive. So one of the more
interesting findings was to know Anne Treismans experiments on
inattentional blindness. This concept refers to the fact that when
someone is attending to one stream of information, the others get
excluded. So there is some kind of filter that blocks them from any
further analysis. A strong idea from Treismans theory is that without
attention you simply do not consciously see things.
Matrix 4: Final thoughts
Reflecting on each of these theories and their applications in the field
of education, has allowed me to grow as a professional and as a
person. As a professional, I have more elements to make my practices
more coherent, as well as to make more careful and informed
decisions. As a person, I have reconsidered my own processes of
thought, attention, and motivation. I have found exciting the field of
learning theories and now understand that I have more tools to serve
the Kingdom of God as a teacher.
The material I have had available to carry out this study has cultivated
my curiosity and desire to learn more about each theory and subject.
It is also true that so much information has been difficult to assimilate
(using a Piagetian concept) in four weeks.
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