The Rhetoric of

Argument
White and Billings
The Well-Crafted Argument
Monty Python's "Argument Clinic"
 Nature and Process
The more we know about argument
what it involves, how a strong argument is
constructed, and what a weak argument
lacks the more likely we are to benefit
from this liberty.
 Informal versus Formal
Casual arguments often consist of little more
than exchanges of opinions or unsupported
generalizations
Formal arguments are expected to include
evidence in support of generalizations if they
are to succeed in making strong points,
solving real problems, or changing minds.
 Three basic ingredients
Relevant information
Convincing Evidence
Pattern of Reasoning

Definition of Argument
A form of discourse in which the writer or
speaker tries to persuade an audience to
accept, reject, or think a certain way about a
problem that cannot be solved by scientific or
mathematical reasoning alone.
 Opinion versus Argument
Opinion = Public flogging of robbers would be
a more effective deterrent than jailing them.
Opinion = yeah, probably. or No way that
would contribute to a culture of violence.
Argument = Supporting the statement with
statistics that show a correlation between
public punishment and the crime rate

*A good argument takes time to prepare and

also guides the audience through a logical
step-by-step line of reasoning from thesis to
conclusion.
 Definition of Argument Breakdown

a pattern of reasoning
logical progression that leads the reader from thesis
to support of thesis to conclusion
unfamiliar terms or concepts are carefully defined or
explained and background information is given to
enable audience to understand larger context
EX: SUVs are selling better than subcompacts
(DOES NOT ESTABLISH A VALID ARGUMENT)
EX: The enormous popularity of SUVs is rapidly
increasing gasoline consumption nationally,
which in turn is leading to greater dependence
on foreign oil. (ESTABLISHES A VALID ARGUMENT)
 Definition of Argument Breakdown

reinforced by detailed evidence

any assertion must be backed up with
specific, compelling evidence that is accurate,
timely, relevant, and sufficient.
Evidence can be data derived from surveys,
experiments, observations, firsthand field
investigations (statistical evidence), or from
expert opinion (authoritative evidence).
 Definition of Argument Breakdown

that tries to persuade the audience to

accept the claim
the ultimate goal: to convince the audience
that arguers point of view is a sensible one,
worthy of serious consideration if not outright
acceptance.
Often times appeals are used to reinforce
evidence
Exercise 1.1
Formulate an answer for 2 a,b,c,d
 Communicating with Purpose

Communication (Aristotelian) Triangle

(Audience, Writer, Subject)
Rhetorical Rhombus (Audience, Writer,
Subject, Purpose)
Three Basic Kinds of Communication
Referential (Expository)
Expressive
Argumentative
 Purpose in an Argumentative Context

The purpose is the reason why you want

your audience to agree with your claim
and take whatever actions is necessary to
carry it out.
 Role Play:
Teacher X: Student X, your support seems a little
limited doesnt seem to be any umpf to your
argument, where can we add more to this paper?
Student: I dont know.
Teacher X: Well, what was your purpose for writing
this paper?
Student: You assigned it.
This is a PROBLEM!
You should find a professional or intrinsic purpose for
writing on the topic. This is how your scope will be
limited and your essay will be full of passion and
energy.
 Audience in an Argumentative Context

Your audience for all papers, unless

otherwise noted, is Academic.
The purpose of academic writing is
knowledge-sharing or idea-sharing
Here is what scholars have said, now here is my
two-bits
 Academic Arguments

Specialized precise language

Formal or semi-formal tone
All primary or secondary sources explicitly
cited and documented, using standard
formats
Contributions by other scholars in the field
are discussed formally and in detail
Scholarly audience
 Writer in an Argumentative Context

The Writers role is determined by the

other elements in the Rhetorical Rhombus.
 Subject in an Argumentative Context

The role of subject differs in each

argument based on the other elements of
the Rhombus
 The Process of Composing
Read, Read, Read Immerse yourself in
the subject then you may be reading to
work through the writing process.
 Exercise 1.3
Question 2: What appeals are at work in
each of the following passages?
 Organizing the Argument
Introduce the topic
The situation in the narrative
The subject matter to be explained in an exposition or
explanation; the problem in an argument
Present the particulars of the situation
the sequencing of incidents in a narrative
elements of a phenomenon in an exposition or explanation
the nature of the problem, followed by the body of evidence, in
an argument
Conclude
The outcome in a narrative
The whole picture in an explanation
The interpretation, assessment, and recommendations in an
argument
 Organizing the Argument
Classical Model
Begins with introduction that establishes the problem and states
the thesis
Analyzes the evidence and refutes opposing views in light of the
evidence collected
Draws conclusions and provides recommendations
Toulmin Model
Value Dependent, truth tested according to the values
Rogerian Model
One shifts the emphasis to the social act of negotiating
difference through argument
Value Dependent but it must be negotiated cooperatively
 Composing Openings
Occasional Opening
Reference to current event
Startling Opening
Use of unexpected information
Anecdotal Opening
Brief story to engage the readers attention
Analytical Opening
Launches immediately into a critical discussion
 Exercise 1.4
Question 1,2,3
Read Plato 650-657
Interrupted Reading
 Composing the
Body of the Argument
The Promise made to the readers is
fulfilled in the body
The subject portion of the Rhombus: the
detailed support facts, examples,
illustrations as well as the emotional,
logical, ethical appeals.
 Composing Conclusions
A good conclusion enables readers to grasp the
full impact of the argument.
If the intro states the claim, the body argues for the
validity of the claim by citing evidence for it, the
conclusion encapsulates all those points of evidence
Reflect back on the paper
Broaden the scope beyond your paper
Reinforce the readers emotional involvement
Feelings of security, hope, happiness, self-confidence,
optimism, or overall well-being
 Exercise 1.5
Discuss the weakness/strengths of Body
and Conclusion
 Revising the Argument
Checklist
Attend closely to the ways you
Presented the problem
Stated your claims
Reported evidence and testimony
Represented challenging views
Drawn inferences
Reached conclusions
 Revision Tasks
Holistic (start a different draft)
Content (ideas and evidence)
Organizational (logical progression)
Stylistic (syntax, tone, diction)
Proofreading (line-by-line error check)
 Visual Aids
Headings and subheadings
Images (must contribute)