Chapter 3 Loads and Load

effects
Dr. -Ing. Adil Z.
Eng. Asmerom

1
 Loads on Structures
Classification of loads
Area of application: Concentrated, Distributed (UDL)
Direction: Vertical (Gravity), Horizontal (Lateral)
Response: Static, Dynamic
Variation with time: Permanent (Dead), Variable
(Live)

2
 Loads on Structures
Classification of loads in Building Codes
Permanent (Dead)
Variable (Live)
Environmental Loads
Wind
Earthquake (Seismic)
Snow
Rain
Earth pressure

3
Wind Load
EBCS -1, 1995

4
 Wind load
Wind is air in motion
Structure deflects or stops the wind, converting the
winds kinetic energy into potential energy of
pressure
The wind loads that act on a structure result from
movement of the air against the obstructing
surfaces.
Wind effects induce forces, vibrations, and in some
cases instabilities in the overall structure as well as
its non-structural components.
5
 Wind load

Wind velocity increases with the power of the structural

height
6
Wind load

7
 Wind load
These wind effects depend on:
the wind speed,
density of the air,
shape of the structure
location and geometry of the structure, and
vibrational characteristics of the system.
Wind Forces According to EBSC-1, 1995
wind pressure in this section is valid for rigid
surface only and neglects their resonant
vibration
8
 Wind Load
Two method of analysis is provided
the static procedure
Only used for structures whose structural
properties do not make them susceptible to
dynamic excitation (Cd 1.2)
A detailed Dynamic Procedure
must be used for those structures which are likely
to be susceptible to dynamic excitation (Cd > 1.2)
In order to determine Dynamic coefficient Cd , Charts
and figures can be used (EBCS 1-1995 fig 3.7 to 3.13)
9
Wind Load

10
 Wind load (the simple procedure)
Wind Pressure: The external and internal wind pressures are
given as:
We = qref Ce (ze )cpe
Wi = qref Ce (zi )cpi
Where: We and Wi are the external and internal pressures;
Ce(ze ) and Ce(zi ) are the external and internal
exposure coefficients;
Cpe and Cpi are the external and internal pressure
coefficients.
The design wind pressure that is used to establish the wind load
on a structure is directly related to reference velocity pressure
(qref) and is given by:
qref Vref
2
11
 Wind load
Where:
is the density of air and
Vref is the reference wind velocity to be taken as 22m/s.
The air density is a function of altitude and
depends on the temperature and pressure to be
expected in the region during storms. A
temperature of 200C has been selected as
appropriate for Ethiopia and the variation of mean
atmospheric pressure with altitude is given in Table
2.3.(NS)

12
 Table 2.1 Values of air density
Site Altitude (m) (kg/m3)
Above sea level
0 1.20
500 1.12
1000 1.06
1500 1.00
2000 0.94

13
 Wind load
Exposure Coefficient : takes into the account the
effects of terrain, topography and elevation.

2 2 7 kT
C e ( z e ) C e ( z i ) C r ( z ) C t ( z ) 1
Cr ( z ) Ct ( z )
Where: KT - the terrain factor
Cr(z ) - the roughness coefficient
Ct(z ) - the topography coefficient

*** Or use table 3.5 from EBCS-1 1995 for Ce(ze ) &
Ce(zi ) (See next slide)

14
 Exposure coefficient Ce

Table 3.5 from EBCS-1 1995

15
 Wind load
Terrain Category: The terrain category attempts
to take into account the effect of the land
coverage, and is given below.
The terrain type is classified into 4 groups as
follows:
Category I: Lakes with at least 5 km fetch upwind
and smooth flat country without obstacles.
Category II: Farmland with boundary hedges,
occasional small farm structure, houses or trees
Category III: Suburban or industrial areas and
permanent forests.
Category IV: Urban areas in which at least 15% of
the surface is covered with buildings and their
average height.
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 Wind load
Cr(z ) - the roughness coefficient
Attempts to take into account the effect of the
land coverage
z
C r ( z ) kT ln for Z min Z 200m
zo

C r ( z ) C r ( z min ) for Z Z min

Where kT terrain factor
zo roughness length
zmin minimum height
For ground height above 200 m specialist advice is
recommended.
17
 Wind load
Terrain factor (KT) can be taken from table or calculated as
follows:
0.07
zo
kT 0.19

zo , II

Z0= minimum height defined

Z0,II= minimum height of category II (0.05)

Terrain
Category KT Zo(m) Zmin(m)
I 0.17 0.01 2
II 0.19 0.05 4
III 0.22 0.3 8
IV 0.24 1 16
18
 Wind load
Ct(z ) - the topography coefficient
It accounts for the increase of mean wind
speed over isolated hills and escarpments
Ct(z ) =1 for <0.05
Ct(z ) =1+2S for 0.05 <0.3
Ct(z ) =1+0.6 S for >0.3
Where:
S the orographic location factor,
the upwind slope H/Lu in the wind direction
Le the effective length of the upwind slope,
Lu the actual length of the upwind slope in the wind direction
Ld the actual length of the downwind slope in the wind direction
H the effective height of the feature
X the horizontal distance of the site from the top of the crest
z the vertical distance from the ground level of the site

19
Wind load

20
Wind load

21
 Wind Load
Pressure Coefficient: The shape factor takes
into account the effect of shape of structure
on the pressure distribution.
The external pressure coefficients Cpe for
buildings and individual parts of building depend
on the size of the loaded area A. They are given
for loaded area A of 1m2 and 10m2 in the relevant
tables for the appropriate building configuration
as cpe,1 and cpe,10, respectively. For areas between
1m2 and 10m2, values are obtained by linear
interpolation. That is:
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 Wind Load (Ext. Pressure Coeff.)

Cpe = Cpe,1 for A1m2

Cpe = Cpe,1 +( Cpe,10 Cpe,1)log10A for 1m2<A<10m2
Cpe = Cpe,10 for A10m2

23
 Wind Load (on building face)

Values of external pressure coefficients for different

cases are given in Table A.1 to Table A.5 of EBCS-1,
1995.

24
 Wind Load (on building face)
It accounts for the variation in dynamic pressure
in different zones of the structure due to
Its geometry
Area and
proximity to other structures

25
Wind Load (on building face)

26
 Wind Load (on building face)

Reference height and wind pressure profile

27
 Wind Load (on building face)

Reference height and wind pressure profile

28
 Wind Load (on building face)
EXTERNAL PRESSURE COEFFICIENTS FOR VERTICAL
WALL.

29
 Wind Load (on flat roofs)
Flat roofs are defined as having a slope () of 5< < 5
The roof should be divided into zones as shown in
Figure below.

30
Wind Load (on flat roofs)

31
 Wind Load (on flat roofs)
External pressure coefficients for flat roof

32
 Wind Load (on Monopitch roofs)
The roof, including protruding parts, should be
divided into zones as shown in Figure below and NS
The reference height Ze should be taken equal to h.

33
Wind Load (on Monopitch roofs)

34
 Wind Load (on Monopitch roofs)
External pressure coefficients for Monopitch roof =0
and =180

35
 Wind Load (on Monopitch roofs)
External pressure coefficients for Monopitch roof =90

36
 Wind Load (on Duo pitch roofs)
The roof, including protruding parts, should be
divided into zones as shown in Figure below and NS
The reference height Ze should be taken equal to h.

37
Wind Load (on Duo pitch roofs)

38
 Wind Load (on Duo pitch roofs)
External pressure coefficients for Duopitch roof =0

39
 Wind Load (on Duo pitch roofs)
External pressure coefficients for Monopitch roof =90

40
 Wind Load (on Hipped roofs)
The roof, including protruding parts, should be
divided into zones as shown in Figure below and NS
The reference height Ze should be taken equal to h.

41
Wind Load (on Hipped pitch roofs)

42
Wind Load (on Hipped pitch roofs)
External pressure coefficients for Monopitch roof =0
and =0

43
 Wind Load
Internal pressure Coefficient Cpi
Internal and external pressures shall be considered
to act at the same time. The worst combination of
external and internal pressures shall be considered
for every combination of possible openings and
other leakage paths.
The internal pressure coefficient Cpi for building w/o
internal partition is a function of opening ratio m
defined as

44
 For closed buildings with internal partitions and
opening windows the extreme values :
Cpi = 0.8 and Cpi = -0.5

45
 Wind load
Net pressure: the difference of the pressures (external
and internal) on each surface due account of their
signs.

46
 Local effects of wind pressure
Wind around a corner

Images from FEMA Multi Hazard Seminar 47

Local effects of wind pressure

Images from FEMA Multi Hazard Seminar

48
 Local effects of wind pressure
Uplift on roof

Images from FEMA Multi Hazard Seminar

49
Local effects of wind pressure

Images from FEMA Multi Hazard Seminar

50
Earthquake Load
EBCS -8, 1995

51
 Earthquake Load
An earthquake is the vibration of Earth
produced by the rapid release of
accumulated energy in elastically strained
rocks. It is the earths natural means of
releasing stress.
Energy released radiates in all directions
from its source, the focus;
Energy propagates in the form of seismic
waves;
52
 Types of Earthquakes
Tectonic Earthquakes: occur when rocks in the
earth's crust break due to geological forces created
by movement of tectonic plates.
Volcanic Earthquakes: occur in conjunction with
volcanic activity.
Collapse Earthquakes: are small earthquakes in
underground mines,
Explosion Earthquakes: result from the explosion
of nuclear and chemical devices.
* About 90% of all earthquakes result from tectonic
events, primarily movements on the faults
 Basic principles of conceptual design

The guiding principle in conceptual design against

seismic hazard are:
structural simplicity
uniformity and symmetry
bidirectional resistance and stiffness
torsional resistance and stiffness
diaphragmatic action at storey level
adequate foundation

54
 Consequence of structural regularity on
seismic design EBCS 8, 1995

REGULARITY SIMPLIFICATION
BEHAVIOR
FACTOR
PLAN ELEVATION MODEL ANALYSIS

Yes Yes Planar Static* Basic

Yes No Planar Static* Increased

No Yes Spatial Static* Basic

No No Spatial Dynamic Increased

* Fundamental period < 2 seconds
55
 Regularity in Plan

symmetric in plan w.r.t. 2 orthogonal directions

compact plan configuration (no H, I, X shapes) Re-
entrants in one direction <25%
In-plane stiffness of floors sufficiently large
compared to stiffness of vertical elements
Under the equivalent static seismic force, max.
displacement in the direction of seismic force does
not exceed avg. displacement by 20%

56
 Regularity in elevation

All lateral load resisting systems run without

interruption from foundation to top
Both lateral stiffness & mass of story's remain
constant or reduce gradually without abrupt changes
ratio of actual storey resistance to required
resistance should not vary disproportionately
between adjacent storeys.

57
 Regularity in elevation (contd.)

when setbacks
are present:

58
 Earthquake Analysis of Linear Systems

Equivalent static analysis (ESA)

Dynamic analysis
Response history analysis (RHA) or (THA)
Response spectrum analysis (RSA)

59
 EBCS 8 Elastic Design Spectra
Normalized Elastic Response Spectra
3
Spectral acceleration / Ground acceleration:

2.5

soil class A
1.5
soil class B
bo

soil class C
1

0.5

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Period T (sec)
60
 Equivalent Static Analysis, EBCS 8, 1995

Base shear force, Fb = Sd(T1) W

Fundamental period, T1 = C1 H3/4 ; T1 = 2 d

m j u 2j Rayleigh coefficient
T1 2
Sd (T1) = abg F j u j Not explicitly shown
Distribution of lateral force
( Fb Ft ) Wi hi
Fi and Ft 0.07T1 Fb
W j h j
Accidental torsion, eli = 0.05 Li
Torsional effects in individual elements, d=1+0.6 x/Le

61
 Design spectrum coefficients

a= aoI bedrock acceleration

ao=0.1, 0.07, 0.05, 0.03 acceleration ratio

I = 1.4, 1.2, 1.0, 0.8 importance factor

1.2 S
2 / 3 2.5 response factor
T1
S = 1.0, 1.2, 1.5 site coefficient

g= gokD kR kW 0.70 behavior factor

62
 Seismic Hazard map of Ethiopia

bedrock
acceleration
coefficient ao ao = 0.05g 0.1g

63
 Importance factors for buildings
Importance Importance
Buildings
category factor
Bldgs whose during EQ is vital
I importance, e.g. hospitals, fire 1.4
stations, ...
Bldgs whose collapse results in
II serious consequence, e.g. schools, 1.2
assembly halls,
ordinary buildings not belonging to
III other categories
1.0
Bldgs of minor importance for
IV public safety, e.g. agricaltural bldgs., 0.8
etc. 64
 Comparing acceleration coefficients
Comparison of response factor ordinates for class C soil
3

2.5

2
Response factor

1.5 Design Spectra

Response factor

0.5

in ESA and A/g in design spectrum are not identical

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Peroid T (sec)
65
 Subsoil classification

Subsoil Site coeff.

Description
class S
Rock vs 800 m/s in the top 5m
A and stiff clay deposits vs 400 m/s at 1.0
10m depth

medium dense sand, gravel or medium

B 1.2
stiff clays vs 200 m/s at 10m depth
Loose cohesionless soil deposits with or
C without some soft cohesive layers 1.5
vs < 200 m/s in the uppermost 20m
where vs is shear wave velocity
66
 Torsional effects

Spatial (3D) model, accidental torsional effects

Mli = eli Fi
where Mli torsional moment at storey i
eli accidental eccentricity of storey mass i
(eli = 0.05 Li)
Fi horizontal force acting at storey i
Planar (2D) models: amplify the action effects in individual
load resisting elements with a factor d
(d=1+0.6 x/Le)
If torsional irregularity exists, increase eli by
2
max
A 3.0
1.2
avg 67
 Scaling of results

when base shear determined from procedures

of RSA < ESA:
base shear shall be increased to the following
%age of the values determined from ESA
100% for irregular buildings
90% for regular buildings
deflections, member forces and moments increased
proportionally

68
Combination of components of seismic action

Horizontal components shall be considered to act non-

concurrently
Vertical components amounting to 70% of the horizontal
components shall be taken into account for:
horizontal (or nearly) members spanning 20 m
horizontal (or nearly) cantilever components
horizontal (or nearly) prestressed components
beam supporting columns
analysis is made on a partial model consisting of the
element under consideration and adjacent elements

69
 Determination of displacements

Displacements induced by the design seismic

action:
ds = de / gd
where
ds = displacement due to design seismic action
de = displacement from linear analysis based on
design spectrum (shall also include torsional
effects)
gd = displacement behavior factor

70
 Safety Verifications
1. Ultimate limit states
safety against collapse (ULS) is ensured if
resistance, ductility, equilibrium, foundation
stability and seismic joint conditions are met
a. Resistance condition
Design action effects design resistance; Ed Rd
Second order effects:
Ptot d r
Interstorey drift sensitivity coeff.,
Vtot h
if 0.10 no need to consider
0.1 < 0.2 consider 2nd order effects by amplifying
results by a factor 1/(1- )
shall not exceed 0.25
71
 Safety Verifications (contd.)
b. Ductility condition
check that the structural elements and the structure as a
whole posses adequate ductility
specific material related requirements shall be satisfied
c. Equilibrium condition
bldg. should be stable against overturning and sliding
additional SLS verification for bldgs with sensitive
equipments
d. Resistance of horizontal diaphragms
Horizontal diaphragms & bracings shall have sufficient over-
strength in transmitting lateral loads
The above requirements are satisfied if the diaphragms can
resist 1.3 times forces obtained from analysis
72
 Safety Verifications (contd.)
e. Resistance of foundation
Verification of foundations according to EBCS 7.
Action effects based on capacity design consideration, but
shall not exceed that of linear behavior with g =1.
If the action effects are determined using g 0.7, no capacity
design consideration is needed
f. Seismic joint condition
To check that there is no collision with adjacent structures
Distance between potential points of impact < max. ds
When floor elevations of adjacent bldgs are the same the max.
separation distance referred above can be reduced by a factor of 0.7
If shear (bumper) wall provided on the perimeter of the bldgs no
separation distance needed, a 40 mm separation can be used for the
rest of the bldg.

73
 Safety Verifications
2. Serviceability limit states
limitation of damage requirement (SLS) is satisfied if,
under the design seismic action, the interstorey
drifts dr are limited to:
a. For bldgs having non-structural elements of brittle
materials attached to the structure
dr 0.01 h
b. For bldgs having non-structural elements fixed in a
way not to interfere with structural deformations
dr 0.015 h
where h is the storey height
c. Additional SLS verification may be reqd for
important bldgs containing sensitive equipments
74
 Design provisions for concrete buildings

Design Concepts:
EQ resistant concrete bldgs shall provide adequate energy
dissipation capacity
Overall ductile behavior is ensured if the ductility demand
is spread over a large number of elements. Ductile mode
of failure (flexure) should precede brittle failure modes
(shear)
With regard to required dissipation capacity, three ductility
classes are set to provide appropriate amount of ductility
Different behavior factors g are used for each ductility
class
In seismic zones 1 & 2 design load combinations according
to EBCS 2 provisions with an appropriate g.
75
 Ductility Classes
Depending on the required hysteretic dissipation
capacity
DCL (low ductility)
structures designed and dimensioned according to EBCS 2
concrete class C 20
DCM (medium ductility)
specific provisions for design and detailing to ensure inelastic
behavior of the structure without brittle failure
concrete class C 25
DCH (high ductility)
special provisions for design and detailing to ensure stable
mechanisms with large dissipation of hysteretic energy
concrete class C 25

76
 Behavior factors g
g = gokD kR kW 0.70
go = basic value of structural response, depends on structure type

Structural type go

Frame system 0.20

Frame equivalent 0.20
Dual system Wall eqv with coupled walls 0.20
Wall eqv with uncoupled walls 0.20
with coupled walls 0.20
Wall system
with uncoupled walls 0.25
Core system 0.30
Inverted pendulum system 0.50
77
 Behavior factors g (contd.)

kD = factor reflecting ductility class

kD = 1.0 for DCH,
kD = 1.5 for DCM,
kD = 2.0 for DCL.
kR = factor reflecting structural regularity in elevation
kR = 1.00 for regular structures
kR = 1.25 for irregular structures
kW = factor reflecting the prevailing failure mode in
structural systems with walls
1.00 for frame and frame equivalent systems
(2.5 0.5 ao) 1.0 for wall, wall equivalent systems
and core systems
78
 Design criteria for concrete bldgs

local resistance criterion

all critical regions shall have adequate resistance
second order effects shall be taken into account
capacity design criterion
brittle or undesirable failure mechanisms shall be
prevented, (e.g. shear failure of elements, BCJ failure,
or yielding of foundation)
plastic hinges shall be distributed throughout the
structure, only in beams and not in columns except at
the base of the bldg.
(refer to the next slide)
79
Choice of ductile mode failure

80