Chapter 05

Streamflow and its measurement

hydrology and water management spring 2017

By. Engr.Rahat Ullah 1

outline
Stream flow
Classification of streams
River stage
Measurement of river stage
Non recording gauge
Recording gauge
Crest stage gauge
Discharge measurement
Velocity area method (Free flow method).
Measurement by permanent structures.
Chemical gauging method.
Essential requirements of good discharge measurement
Stage-Discharge relationship
Site selection for stream gauging
Units of stream flow
By. Engr.Rahat Ullah 2
Stream Flow
Stream flow is the discharge in a stream channel at a given time and at a
given section. Stream flow includes surface runoff as well as ground water
flow that has seeped in stream.
The process by which the discharge of the channel is measured is called
stream gauging which includes determining the river stage and velocity of
flow.
streams provide water supply for man and animals, irrigation water for
vegetation, dilution and transport for removal of waste, and energy for
production of power. Records of stream flow are important in each of these
uses.
Water in streams can also be a hazard. Floods cause extensive damages
and hardships. Records of flood events obtained at gauging stations serve
as the basis for the design of bridges, culverts, spillways, reservoirs, etc.
Continued
A knowledge of the quantity and quality of stream flows is a requisite
for:
municipal , industrial, agricultural, and other water supply endeavors.
flood control; reservoir design and operation; hydroelectric power
generation ;water-based recreation; navigation; fish and wild life
management; drainage; the management of natural systems such as
wetlands; and water and waste water treatment.
Classification of streams
Streams may be classified as:

i. Influent and Effluent streams

ii. Intermittent and perennial streams
Influent and Effluent streams.
If the GWT is below the bed of the stream, the seepage from the stream
feeds the ground-water resulting in the build up of water mound Such
streams are called influent streams. Irrigation channels function as influent
streams and many rivers which cross desert areas do so. Such streams will
dry up completely in rainless period and are called ephemeral streams.
When the GWT is above water surface elevation in the stream, the ground
water feeds the stream, Such streams are called effluent streams. The base
flow of surface streams is the effluent seepage from the drainage basin.
Most of the perennial streams are mainly effluent streams.
Influent vs effluent streams
Continued
Intermittent and perennial streams.
If the GWT lies above the bed of the stream during the wet season but
drops below the bed during the dry season, the stream flows during wet
season (due to surface runoff and ground water contribution) but becomes
dry during dry seasons. Such streams are called intermittent streams.
While in the case of perennial streams, even in the most severe droughts,
the GWT never drops below the bed of the stream and therefore they flow
throughout the year. For power development a perennial stream is the
best; power can also be generated from intermittent streams by providing
adequate storage facilities.
 River stage
River stage is a term used in stream gauging. It is the elevation of the
water surface at a specified station above some arbitrary datum.
The zero elevation is sometimes taken as mean sea level but more
often it is set slightly below the point of zero flow in the stream. The
river stage is denoted by g.
River stage
 Measurement of River stage

The river stage can be measured by the following types of gauges.

Non-recording gauges
Recording gauges
Crest - Stage Gauge
 Measurement of River stage (cont.)
1. Non Recording gauges
The Non recording gauges are
a. Staff gauge
b. Float type gauge
c. Electric tape gauge
 Measurement of River stage (cont.)
a. The Staff gauges can be
i. Vertical staff gauge
ii. Sectional staff gauge
iii. Inclined staff gauge
 Measurement of River stage (cont.)
Vertical staff gauge
The simplest way to measure river stage is by means of staff gauge.
A portion of the vertical staff gauge is immersed in the water at all
times.
The gauge may consist of a single vertical scale attached to a bridge
pier, or other structure that extends into the low water channel of the
stream.
Figure shows a typical vertical staff gauge.
Measurement of River stage (cont.)
 Measurement of River stage (cont.)
Sectional staff gauge
If no suitable structure exists in a location, which is accessible at all
stages, a sectional staff gauge (as shown in figure) may be used.
Short sections of staff are mounted on available structures or on
specially constructed supports in such a way that one section is
always accessible.
Measurement of River stage (cont.)
 Measurement of River stage (cont.)
Inclined staff gauge
An alternative to the sectional staff gauge is an inclined staff gauge as
shown in the figure.
Inclined staff gauge is placed on the slope of the stream bank and
graduated so that the scale reads directly in the vertical depth.
The inclined staff gauges are considered better than the sectional
staff gauges due to better accuracy.
Measurement of River stage (cont.)
 Measurement of River stage (cont.)
b. Float type gauges
This gauge is generally installed in a stilling well to avoid wave effects.
The stilling well is 1.20 m in diameter or with inner dimensions 1.20 m x
1.20 m. It is built on side of a bank.
A pipe connects well to river at its lowest level.
The gauge consists of a float, graduated steel tape, counter weight and a
pulley.
The pulley is grooved to accommodate the tape and mounted on a stand.
An arm extends from the stand to a point slightly beyond the tape to carry
an adjustable index, which shows the gauge reading.
Measurement of River stage (cont.)
 Measurement of River stage (cont.)
c.Electric Tape gauge
It consists of a graduated steel tape, a cylindrical weight, a reel for the tape, a
battery and voltmeter.
One terminal of the battery is attached to ground connection and the other to
one terminal of the voltmeter.
The other terminal of the voltmeter is connected through the frame reel, and
tape to the weight.
The weight is lowered until it touches the water surface.
This contact completes the electric circuit and produces a signal on the voltmeter.
The tape reading is then taken at the index provided on the reel mounting. This
gives river stage with respect to a datum on the site.
To find stage with respect to another datum further addition/subtraction will be
required.
Measurement of River stage (cont.)
 Measurement of River stage (cont.)
2. Recording gauges
These are similar to the non-recording gauges but have some arrangement
to give a continuous record.
In recording gauges motion of a float for example, is recorded on a chart,
and in a continuous recorder, the motion of the float moves a pen across a
long strip chart.
The chart is usually 25 cm wide and at a scale of 1:12. When the pen
reaches the edge of the chart it reverses direction and records the next
readings in the other directions across the chart.
The chart roll contains enough paper to operate for a year at a scale of 6
cm/day.
 Measurement of River stage (cont.)
Crest-Stage gauge
A third type of stage measuring device is the crest gauge, used to obtain a record of flood
crests at sites where recording gauges are not installed.
It gives the information about maximum water level in the past.
A variety of such gauges have been devised, including small floats which rise with the
increase in stage but are restrained at the maximum level.
Water-soluble paints on bridge piers where they are protected from rain and can indicate a
definite high water mark are also in use as crest stage gauge.
The piers of bridge are repainted after a flood. The gauge used by U.S. geological survey
consists of a length of vertical pipe containing a graduated stick and a small amount of
ground cork.
The cork floats, as the water rises and some adheres to the stick at the highest level reached
by water.
The stick can be removed, the crest reading recorded, the cork wiped off and the stick
replaced ready for the next reading.
Measurement of River stage (cont.)
 Discharge Measurement
Stream discharge represents the runoff phase of the hydrologic cycle.
Stream discharge can be measured more accurately than other
components of hydrologic cycle such as precipitation, evaporation,
infiltration, etc.
Methods for determining discharge can be classified as:
1. Velocity area method (Free flow method).
2. Measurement by permanent structures.
3. Chemical gauging method.
 Discharge Measurement (cont.)
Velocity area method (Free flow method)
In these methods, certain instruments are used to observe the
velocity in the stream, and the discharge is calculated from the data
thus obtained.
In this method the regime of the channel is not affected, that is depth
remains unaffected when instrument is inserted in stream.
Also free flow method can be employed at any suitable section. The
basic principle that Q = AV is used in this method.
Continued..
Where,
Q = Discharge
A = Area of cross-section of flow, and
V = mean flow velocity.
This needs measurement of mean velocity of flow and the flow cross-
sectional area.
The channel is divided into sub-sections, the mean velocity and the
area of flow is measured at each sub-section and finally the total
discharge is the sum of the discharges through these sub-sections.
Q=q1+q2+q3+..+qn
 Discharge Measurement (cont.)
Finding Mean Velocity
The velocity in the free flow method can be found by
1. Current meter or
2. Pitot tube or
3. Floats
 Discharge Measurement (cont.)
1. Current meter
The current meter is an instrument, which has a rotating element which when
placed in flowing water, the speed of revolutions has a definite relation with the
velocity of flow past the element.
A current meter is an instrument used to measure velocity of water in open
channels or streams.
There are three types of current meters
(i) pigmy current meter, whose cup vane assembly is about 5 cm in diameter and
is used for measuring velocities in streams of depth 15cm or less,
(ii) the cup type, which consists of a wheel with conical cups revolving on a
vertical axis, and
(iii) the screw or propeller type consisting of vanes revolving on a horizontal axis.
Continued
One of the most commonly used current meter is the Price Meter.
This type of current meter is used by U.S. Geological Survey.
It consists of six conical cups rotating about a vertical axis. Electric
contacts driven by the cups close a circuit through a battery and a
wire of supporting cable causes a click in headphones worn by the
operator for each 5 or 10 revolutions of cups.
For shallow depths wading (depth measurement by rods) is done and
for measurements in deep water the meter is suspended from a
cable.
 Discharge Measurement (cont.)
The meter may be used for velocities from 1 to 4.5 m/sec in depths of 1-15
m from a boat, bridge, cable or wading.
A counter weight (stream lined) is fixed below the meter to prevent it from
swaying.
The velocity of water is given as
V= a + bN
Where N is the number of revolutions per second of cups and a and b
are the coefficients for a given current meter.
Following steps are adopted to take measurements by the current meter.
a. Measuring depth of flow (Sounding)
b. Taking reading for N, the revolutions per second (i.e. rev/sec)
 Discharge Measurement (cont.)
Methods of measuring Average Velocity
There are four alternatives for current meter readings.
1. Single point Method
2. Two point Method
3. Multiple Point Method
4. Direct Integration Method
Choice of the method to be used for measuring average velocity is governed by
the following factors:
a) Degree of accuracy is required.
b) Time available, and
c) Behavior of the stream.
 Discharge Measurement (cont.)
1. Single Point Method
The current meter is placed at 0.6 of depth of the stream to find
mean velocity. This is least time consuming method. This is done
when the depth of flow is less than 1 m. The average velocity is
denoted as V=V0.6d, Where V0.6d represents velocity at 0.6 of depth.
 Discharge Measurement (cont.)
2. Two point Method
The current meter is placed at two points. First the reading is taken at
0.2 of depth and then at 0.8 of the depth. This is more accurate than
single point method. The average velocity is mean of the velocity at
0.2 depth and that at 0.8 depth i. e.
V= (V0.2d +V0.8d)/2
 Discharge Measurement (cont.)
3. Multiple Point Method
In this method current meter is placed at different points. Velocity at
each point is measured and then mean of these velocities is taken.
This method, though accurate, but is very time consuming.
 Discharge Measurement (cont.)
4. Direct Integration Method
This method is same as Multiple Point Method.
In this method it is essential that the worker should be an experienced
person.
The current meter is lowered from the surface to the bed of stream with
the uniform velocity and from bed of channel to the surface with the same
velocity.
The number of revolutions made by the propeller is recorded and dividing
it by time consumed in this operation gives the mean velocity directly.
The behavior of flow in channel is also an important factor. i.e. in case of
unsteady flow where the discharge is changing during the measurements
as that in floods, etc. we have to use the quickest method.
Discharge Measurement (cont.)
There are two methods for computing discharge while using current meter.
The mid section method
The mean section method
The mid section method.
In this method, the vertical in which the velocity measurements are made (by one-
point or two-points method) is taken as the middle of the strip, and the water depth
(d) in the vertical (determined by sounding) is taken as the mean depth of the strip.
If b is the width of strip (usually same for all strips) then the discharge in the
elemental strip is given by
Discharge Measurement (cont.)
The mean section method
Mean-section method. In this method, the elemental strip is taken between
two verticals and the mean depth is taken as the average of the depths in the
two verticals (determined by sounding).
The width of the strip is distance b between the two verticals. The velocity
in the strip is taken as the average of the mean velocity determined in the two
verticals (by one-point or two-points method).
The discharge in the elemental strip is given by
 Discharge Measurement (cont.)
2.Pitot Tube
A pitot tube can also be used for measurement of velocity in order to
calculate discharge in laboratory flumes or very small streams.
However the use of pitot tube may not be recommended for rivers
due to following reason.
Supporting the pitot tube is very difficult when the channel is very
wide and deep.
The head generated by a pitot tube in open channel is generally very
small due to very low velocities, and therefore discharge can not be
accurately measured.
Continued
The use of pitot tube may however be recommended for estimating
discharge in laboratory flumes and small channels.
The formula for calculating velocity is
V=(2gh)0.5
Where h is water height in tube above surface of water.
It is the velocity head. Fig shows method of velocity measurement by
a pitot tube.
Discharge Measurement (cont.)
 Discharge Measurement (cont.)
3. Floats
This method consists of putting a float in the channel and noting the
time and distance covered by the float, the velocity will be equal to
the distance traveled in a unit time. i.e.
V=S/t
Where S is distance covered by float in time t.
A straight reach of the channel is selected where the depth is nearly
uniform.
Discharge Measurement (cont.)
Following alternatives can be used to find average velocity.
a. Type-1 floats
The float is kept on the surface of water, specific distance and time is
noted as mentioned earlier. The velocity of float is determined which
is the velocity at the surface of water. The mean velocity then is about
0.85 of surface velocity.
b. Type-2 floats
Some weight is put in the water attached with a flag kept above water
surface, the string length is so adjusted so that the weight is at a
depth of 0.60 of total depth. This directly gives the mean velocity.
Continued
c. Type-3 floats
A hollow box is provided at top. Canvas skirts are connected with
stiffening rings. The mean velocity is found by the formula:
Vm=Vo (1.012 - 0.116 d/d1)
Where,
Vm = Mean velocity, Vo = Observed velocity, d=Total depth, and
d1= Clearance of lower edge of float from the bed of channel
Essential Requirements for Good Discharge
Measurement
Keep the current meter clean and properly oiled to reduce the friction
losses.
The stream cross-section should be sub-divided into as small sub-
sectors as possible (15-20 sub-stations). If this requirement causes
verticals to be less than 0.15 m. then increase the spacing accordingly.
Use the average of velocities at 0.2 and 0.8 of the depth when the
depth is greater than 1 m otherwise take a single measurement at 0.6
times the depth.
Essential Requirements for Good Discharge
Measurement (cont.)
Keeping the meter clean of floating materials by raising the meter out
of water to let the debris pass by.
When using the wading rod keep it vertical and keep your feet 0.45
0.60 meters down stream from the meter.
Read and record the river stage from an auxiliary staff gauge
periodically during the discharge measurement. If the stage begins to
change by greater than 5% the procedure may be speeded up by:
Decreasing the sounding time.
Reducing the number of verticals.
Example 5.1
The following data were collected for a stream at a gauging station.
Compute the discharge.
Solution
The discharge in each strip, Q = (bd) V, where V is the average
velocity in each strip, In the first and the last strips (near the banks)
where the depth is shallow, V = v0.6 d, and in the other five
intermediate strips (with deep water), V = [v 0.2d+v 0.8d ]/2
Width of each strip, b = 3 m, mean depth of strip = d, and the total
discharge, Q = Q = 20.6 cumecs, as computed in Table
Example. 5.2
Compute the stream flow for the measurement data given in columns
1 to 5 of table below. Take the meter rating from equation.
V = a + bN with a = 0.03 and b = 0.66.

Solution
As V = a + b N
So, V = 0.03 + 0.66 N (V is in m/s and N is in revolutions/s). Using
this the following calculations in columns 6 to 11 of Table below are
made. Find the discharge using Mid-Section method.
 Width
Distance Depth Meter Velocity Mean in
Revolutions Time N of sub- Area Discharge
from bank (m) Depth at point vertical
section

(m) (m) (m) (Sec) (Rev/s) (m/s) (m/s) (m) (m) (m/s)
(10)=(2 (11)= (8) x
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)= a+bN (8) (9)
)x(9) (10)

0.60 0.30 0.18 10 50 0.20 0.162 0.162 0.60 0.18 0.03

1.20 1.05 0.84 22 55 0.40 0.294 0.384 0.60 0.63 0.242

0.21 35 52 0.67 0.474

1.80 1.56 1.26 28 53 0.53 0.379 0.432 0.60 0.94 0.404

0.3 40 58 0.69 0.485

2.40 1.89 1.5 32 58 0.55 0.394 0.460 0.60 1.134 0.521

0.39 45 60 0.75 0.525

3.0 1.32 1.15 28 45 0.62 0.441 0.472 0.60 0.792 0.374

0.27 33 46 0.72 0.503

3.60 0.66 0.39 22 50 0.44 0.320 0.320 0.60 0.396 0.127

4.20 0.24 0.15 12 49 0.24 0.192 0.192 0.60 0.144 0.028

4.80

Total 4.212 1.726

Continued
Q=1.726 m/s
Total area, A= 4.212 m
Average velocity = V = (Q/A) = (1.726/4.212) = 0.41 m/sec
Average depth (hydraulic depth) D = AREA / TOP WIDTH
= 4.212/4.2 = 1.6028 m
Example 5.3
From the data given in columns 1 to 4 of the table 5.2 below, find
discharge.
Distance from Mean Width of
Depth(m) Area Discharge
bank Velocity sub-section

(m) (m) (m/s) (m) (m) (m/s)

0.00 0.00 1.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

2.00 0.50 2.50 2.00 1.00 2.50
5.00 2.00 3.00 4.50 9.00 27.00
8.00 2.50 3.00 6.00 15.00 45.00
11.00 2.40 3.00 6.00 14.40 43.20
14.00 1.50 3.00 4.00 6.00 18.00
17.00 1.00 3.50 2.00 2.00 7.00
21.00 0.50 2.00 1.00 0.50 1.00
Total 47.90 143.70
2. Discharge Measurement by permanent
structures
Permanent structures for the measurement of discharge are built at the sites
where regular discharge measurements are required.
Structures built for other purposes such as spillways of dam, or a fall, or a barrage
may also be used.
This may be a masonry structure built in the bed of the channel across the flow.
The height is so designed that for all possible discharges in the channel, the depth
over the sill remains the critical depth, as such a hydraulic jump must form
downstream of the structure say weir.
If H is the head over the weir just upstream of the weir, V, is the critical
velocity yc is the critical depth, on neglecting the approach velocity and
applying energy equation. (In MKS system)
Q = Cd 1.7BH1.5 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (5.12)
Where B = width of weir, Cd = Co-efficient of discharge
3. Discharge measurement by Chemical
gauging method
This method is particularly useful when plenty of turbulence exists in the flow
and the measurement of discharge by current-meter is not feasible.
The situation may include a weir, or a fall, a sharp bent or turbine.
A reach in which hydraulic jump is taking place, is the most appropriate.
In this method one section is selected upstream and other at downstream end of
the reach of channel.
The upstream section is called the dosing section and downstream end is called
sampling section.
At the dosing section some soluble chemical salt made up to a known
concentration is fed into the stream at a measured rate.
By the time the flow reaches the sampling section the salt solution is properly
mixed with the whole flow. Samples of water are drawn from the sampling
section from the downstream section and are analyzed for the quantity of salt.
Stage-discharge relationship (the rating curve)
A river is gauged by current meter throughout the rainy season (for about 3
months) at different stages (water levels) of the river.
The water stage can be read on the enamel painted staff gauges (gauge
posts) erected at different levels at a gauging station.
it may be noted that corresponding graduation of gauge posts at two
locations are fixed at the same level.
A curve is drawn by plotting stream discharge Q vs. gauge height h which
is called the stage discharge rating curve as shown in Fig.
From this rating curve, the stream discharge corresponding to staff gauge
readings taken throughout the year/s can be obtained, as long as the
section of the stream at or near the gauging site has not materially altered.
Periodical gauging (say, once in three years) are conducted to verify the
rating curve, or to revise the rating curve if any change in section has been
noticed.
Selection of site for stream gauging station
The section should be straight and uniform for a length of about 10 to 20
times the width of the stream.
The bed and banks of the stream should be firm and stable so as to ensure
consistency of area-discharge relationship, i.e., the cross section should not
be subjected to change by silting or scouring, during different stages of
flow; a smooth rock, shingle or clay bed is favorable, while a fine sandy bed
is unfavorable.
The bed and banks should be free from vegetal growth, boulders or other
obstructions like bridge piers, etc.
There should be no larger overflow section at flood stage. The best cross
section is one with V-shape, so that there is sufficient depth for immersing
the current meter without being affected by the bed roughness of the
stream.
Continued
The part of the reach having the most regular transverse section
and steady flow with the current normal to the metering section
and velocities in the range of 0.31.2 m/sec should be selected.
To ensure consistency between stage and discharge, there should
be a good control section far downstream of the gauging site.
This control may be in the form of steep rapids, large rocky
boulders, restricted passages, crest of weirs etc.
The sites above the convergence of rivers are best avoided if the
flow is affected by back water conditions due to the varying
discharges in the tributaries.
The stream gauging station should be easily accessible.
Stream flow units
i. Rate of Runoff
It may be measured in cubic foot per second or cubic meter per
second. One cubic foot per second is a volume of one ft when
collected in one second.
The ft/second are also called cusec or cfs. In the metric system the
cubic meter per second are also called cumec.
ii. Volume Runoff
Volume of flow is expressed in cubic feet, cubic meters, cubic inches
and also in Acre foot and second foot days.
Stream flow units (cont.)
Second Foot Day (SFD) : It is the volume of water collected in 24 hours (one day)
at the rate of 1 cubic foot per second.
1 Sfd = 1 x 24 x 60 x 60 = 86400 ft3
The smaller unit is second foot hour i.e. volume collected in one hour at the rate
of 1cfs.
1 sfh = 1 x 60 x 60 = 3600 ft
Acre Foot : If an area of one acre is covered by a uniform depth of 1ft of water.
The total volume thus collected is 1 Acre foot.
One Acre = 4840 (yards)
1 Acre - foot = (4840x9)x1 = 43560 ft and 1 Sfd=1.9835 Acre foot.
Hectare Meter : If an area of one hectare is covered by a uniform depth of 1m of
water. The total volume thus collected is 1 Hectare-meter. One Hectare-meter =
104 m
References
Hydrology for Engineers by Linsely, Kohler, Paulhus
Applied Hydrology by Dr. Abdur Razzaq Ghumman
Hydrology Principles, analysis, design by HM Raghunath
Introduction to Hydrology by Warren Veissman jr. and Gary L Lewis.

Special thanks to Engr. Asad Ali, Lecturer CECOS University.