Topic 4 Culture and Leadership

The concept of leader

Theories summarize leadership:
has to do with an individual intentionally exerting
influence on others to structure the relationships in an
organization
definitions differ as to do with how the influence is
exerted and the outcome of the attempt to influence
The manager is often seen as the embodiment of
stability within an organization, the leader as one who
ensures the success of the organization.

Slide 8.1 Browaeys and Price, Understanding Cross-cultural Management, 1st Edition, Pearson Education Limited 2009
 Comparing management and leadership

Management Leadership
Planning and budgeting
Establishing direction developing a
establishing detailed steps and
Creating an vision of the future, and strategies
timetables for achieving needed
agenda for producing the changes needed to
results, and then allocating the
achieve that vision.
necessary resources.
Organizing and staffing
Aligning people
establishing some structure,
communicating the direction by
Developing a staffing that structure,
words to all those whose
human delegating responsibility and
cooperation may be needed so as to
network for authority for carrying out the plan,
influence the creation of teams and
achieving the providing policies and procedures
coalitions that understand the vision
agenda to help guide people,
and strategies, and accept their
creating methods or systems to
validity,
monitor implementation

Table 8.1 Comparing management and leadership

Source: Kotter (1990) Exhibit 1.1, p.6

Slide 8.2 Browaeys and Price, Understanding Cross-cultural Management, 1st Edition, Pearson Education Limited 2009
 Comparing management and leadership
(Continued)

Management Leadership

Controlling and problem

Motivating and inspiring energizing
solving monitoring results vs.
people to overcome major political,
plan in some detail, identifying
Execution bureaucratic, and resource barriers to
deviations, and then planning
change by satisfying very basic, but
and organizing to solve these
often unfulfilled human needs.
problems

Produces a degree of
predictability and order, and
has the potential of consistently
producing key results expected
Outcomes
by various stakeholders(e.g. for
customers, always being on
time; for stockholders, being on
budget
Produces change, often to a dramatic
degree, and has the potential of
producing extremely useful change (e.g.
new products that customers want, new
approaches to labor relations that help
make a firm more competitive.

Table 8.1 Comparing management and leadership (Continued)

Source: Kotter (1990) Exhibit 1.1, p.6

Slide 8.3 Browaeys and Price, Understanding Cross-cultural Management, 1st Edition, Pearson Education Limited 2009
 The leader and corporate culture (1)

The mechanisms used by a leader to implant

and maintain corporate culture (Schein)
What the leader considers important and pays
attention to, what must be measured and controlled
The way a leader react to difficult situations / crises
The priorities set when allocating resources
The examples set by a leader
The criteria used to allocate rewards and status as
well as to reinforce desired behaviours
The criteria used for recruitment, selection, promotion
and dismissal
Slide 8.4 Browaeys and Price, Understanding Cross-cultural Management, 1st Edition, Pearson Education Limited 2009
 The leader and corporate culture (2)

The routines/habits established by a leader may

be difficult to break if there is need for change in
response to a dynamic environment
The managers may not recognize the need for
change and blame the environment for the
change in fortunes
The leader must re-assert his position, instigate
changes to revitalize the company, or hand over
the reins to a successor

Slide 8.5 Browaeys and Price, Understanding Cross-cultural Management, 1st Edition, Pearson Education Limited 2009
 Scientific leadership

Standard methods for doing a job - the worker is not

required to think, only the leader
Bureaucratic organizations the result: carefully
designed hierarchy of authority, with clearly defined
responsibilities
Functions specialized, information and control
centralized
Uniform application of standard rules and procedures

Slide 8.6 Browaeys and Price, Understanding Cross-cultural Management, 1st Edition, Pearson Education Limited 2009
 The trait approach

Some people have traits and skills for leadership

According to Stogdill (1974) great leaders
throughout history have:
high intelligence
considerable verbal fluency
overall knowledge
considerable initiative involving energy, ambition
and persistence.
height: tallness implies authority

Slide 8.7 Browaeys and Price, Understanding Cross-cultural Management, 1st Edition, Pearson Education Limited 2009
 The human factor

Psychological and human factors identified

relating to social norms and non-economic
rewards.
Attempts made to marry the scientific and
human approaches by focusing on the role of
the decision-makers.
To operate successfully, leaders need to find a
compromise between rational, goal-oriented
behaviour and non-rational behaviour among an
organizations employees.

Slide 8.8 Browaeys and Price, Understanding Cross-cultural Management, 1st Edition, Pearson Education Limited 2009
 What is Leadership?
Definition
The process of influencing people to direct their
efforts toward the achievement of some particular
goal or goals.
Effective leadership involves the ability to inspire
and influence the thinking, attitudes, and behavior
of people (i.e. to motivate).
Leadership theories
Theories X, Y and Z
Leadership Styles

Slide 8.9 Browaeys and Price, Understanding Cross-cultural Management, 1st Edition, Pearson Education Limited 2009
 Theories X, Y and Z
Articulate fundamental beliefs (assumptions)
about the nature of people:
Theory X people are basically lazy; coercion and
threats of punishment often are necessary to get
them to work
Theory Y under the right conditions people not
only will work hard but will seek increased
responsibility and challenge
Theory Z workers seek opportunities to
participate in management and are motivated by
teamwork and responsibility sharing

Slide 8.10 Browaeys and Price, Understanding Cross-cultural Management, 1st Edition, Pearson Education Limited 2009
 Authoritarian Leadership
Use of work-centered behavior designed to
ensure task accomplishment.

Authoritarian Leader

Subordinate Subordinate Subordinate

One-way downward flow of information and

influence from authoritarian leader to subordinates.

Adapted from Figure 131: LeaderSubordinate Interactions

Slide 8.11 McGraw-Hill/Irwin 2006 The
Browaeys and Price, Understanding Cross-cultural McGraw-Hill
Management, Companies,
1st Edition, Inc. AllLimited
Pearson Education rights2009
reserved.
 I want both of you to. . .
Authoritarian Leadership
Leader makes all the decisions and passes the directives to
subordinates who are expected to carry these out under very close
supervision.
Any subordinates attempt at questioning the directives given are
discouraged. There is little or no opportunity for subordinates to
develop initiative and creativity.
Employee behavior is closely controlled through such means as
punishment, reward, arbitrary rules, and task orientation.
The authoritarian leadership style is based upon the assumption that
the leader knows everything and knows what is best for the
organization. Employees are ignorant, indolent, lack ambition, dislike
responsibility, and prefer to be led.
Employees cannot be trusted to do what is right for the organization.
Unlimited authority is thus rightly vested in the leader.
Authoritarian leaders can be arrogant, hostile, boastful, and
egotistical.
Slide 8.12 Browaeys and Price, Understanding Cross-cultural Management, 1st Edition, Pearson Education Limited 2009
 Paternalistic Leadership
Use of work-centered behavior coupled with a
protective employee centered concern.

Paternalistic Leader

Subordinate Subordinate Subordinate

Continual interaction and exchange of information

and influence between leader and subordinates.

Adapted from Figure 131: LeaderSubordinate Interactions

Slide 8.13 McGraw-Hill/Irwin 2006Management,
Browaeys and Price, Understanding Cross-cultural The McGraw-Hill
1st Edition,Companies, Inc. All
Pearson Education rights
Limited reserved.
2009
 Paternalistic Leadership
You two take care of the problem while I go. . .

Paternalistic managers give more attention to the social needs

and views of their workers.
They consult employees over issues and listen to their feedback or
opinions. The manager will however make the actual decisions (in
the best interests of the workers) as they believe the staff still need
direction.
Typical paternalistic manager most of the times explains the
specific reason as to why he has taken certain actions in
management and for his employees.
Decisions take into account the best interests of the employees as
well as the business.
Communication is generally downward, but feedback to the
management is encouraged to maintain morale.
This style can be highly advantageous when it engenders loyalty
from the employees.
Slide 8.14 Browaeys and Price, Understanding Cross-cultural Management, 1st Edition, Pearson Education Limited 2009
 Participative Leadership
Use of both work- or task-centered and people
centered approaches to leading subordinates.

Participative Leader

Subordinate Subordinate Subordinate

Continual interaction and exchange of information

and influence between leader and subordinates.
Authority highly decentralized.
Adapted from Figure 131: LeaderSubordinate Interactions
Slide 8.15 McGraw-Hill/Irwin 2006 The
Browaeys and Price, Understanding Cross-cultural McGraw-Hill
Management, Companies,
1st Edition, Inc. AllLimited
Pearson Education rights2009
reserved.
Let's work together to solve this. Participative Leadership
Subordinates are encouraged to express their ideas and make
suggestions. However, leader maintains the final decision
making authority.
It is characterized by a structured but cooperative approach to
decision making. It focuses on group relationships and
sensitivity to the people in the organization.
Fosters professional competence -supervision is minimal as
individuals take the responsibility for their behavior.
Normally used when leader has part of the information, and
employees have other parts. Note that a leader is not expected
to know everything this is why they employ knowledgeable
and skillful employees.
Mutual benefit it allows employees to become part of the
team and able to make better decisions.
Participative leaders sell ideas. They tend to be warm, confident,
and friendly.
Slide 8.16 Browaeys and Price, Understanding Cross-cultural Management, 1st Edition, Pearson Education Limited 2009
 The new leadership

The transformational leader

creates, communicates and embodies a vision which can
influence changes in the attitudes and assumptions of
subordinates
builds their commitment inspires trust, confidence and loyalty
Bass (1985) compares this with the traditional,
transactional leader
has more of a business-like relation with subordinates
appeals to the self-interest of all parties
Bass maintains that business needs both types of
leadership: the most effective leaders combine
the two styles
Slide 8.17 Browaeys and Price, Understanding Cross-cultural Management, 1st Edition, Pearson Education Limited 2009
 Transformational Leadership
Transformational leaders are characterized by
four interrelated factors:
Idealized Influence charismatic and admired;
able to enhance pride, loyalty, and confidence,
and align followers with a common purpose or
vision
Inspirational Motivation extremely effective in
articulating their vision, mission, and beliefs
Intellectual Stimulation lead others to
question old paradigms and accept new views of
the world
Individualized Consideration able to diagnose
and elevate the needs of each of their followers
Slide 8.18 Browaeys and Price, Understanding Cross-cultural Management, 1st Edition, Pearson Education Limited 2009
 Transformational Leadership
Transformational leadership is defined as a leadership
approach that causes change in individuals and social
systems. In its ideal form, it creates valuable and positive
change in the followers with the end goal of developing
followers into leaders. Enacted in its authentic form,
transformational leadership enhances the motivation, morale
and performance of his followers through a variety of
mechanisms. These include connecting the follower's sense
of identity and self to the mission and the collective identity
of the organization; being a role model for followers that
inspires them; challenging followers to take greater
ownership for their work, and understanding the strengths
and weaknesses of followers, so the leader can align
followers with tasks that optimise their performance.

Slide 8.19 Browaeys and Price, Understanding Cross-cultural Management, 1st Edition, Pearson Education Limited 2009
 Cultural contingency factors

Leaders may be forced to alter their leadership behaviour

to conform to the cultural realities they face, e.g.
in large power distance cultures an ideal leader may
well be expected to display great authority, to the
benefit of those being led
in some cultures which prefer rules and avoid
ambiguities the leader may well need to give strong
direction
A further contingency factor: the cultural profile of the
leader who is making decisions as to how best to lead

Slide 8.20 Browaeys and Price, Understanding Cross-cultural Management, 1st Edition, Pearson Education Limited 2009
 Universal attributes and cultural variables

GLOBE pinpoints two dimensions of leadership

considered very effective in all societies studied:
Team-oriented leading, with emphasis on building effective
teams and implementing a goal common to team members.
The communication of vision, values and confidence in
followers.
Some variations between societies regarding:
The perceived effectiveness of participative leadership.
Autonomous leadership (degree of social distance from
subordinates).
Self-protective leadership (maintaining the leaders safety
and security).

Slide 8.21 Browaeys and Price, Understanding Cross-cultural Management, 1st Edition, Pearson Education Limited 2009
 Universal attributes and cultural variables

UNIVERSAL
CULTURAL VARIATIONS OF
UNIVERSAL ATTRIBUTES WHICH ATTRIBUTES WHICH
ACCEPTANCE/REJECTION OF
REFLECT GOOD LEADERSHIP IMPEDE GOOD
ATTRIBUTES
LEADERSHIP
integrity (trustworthiness, irritable independent, autonomous,
honesty, fairness) egocentric individualistic
charisma (encouraging, loner subdued, self-effacing, self-
positive, motivational, non-explicit sacrificial
confidence-building asocial domineering, ruler
behaviour which shows dictatorial status-conscious, class
dynamism and foresight) ruthless conscious, elitist
team-oriented leadership non-cooperative enthusiastic, compassionate,
(effective in building teams, sensitive, sincere
communicating and orderly, formal, logical,
coordinating) procedural, habitual
decisiveness intuitive
intelligence risk-taking, cautious, able to
orientation towards anticipate
excellence. wilful, ambitious
evasive, indirect, cunning

Table 8.2 Summary of the findings made by House et al.

Source: House et al. (2004) Tables 21.2, 21.3 and 21.4

Slide 8.22 Browaeys and Price, Understanding Cross-cultural Management, 1st Edition, Pearson Education Limited 2009
 Universality of transformational leadership

Transformational leadership may be universal

But the way transformational attributes are
expressed may differ between cultures
E.g. Integrity is one attribute universally
considered to be desirable but how do people
in different cultures conceptualize, perceive and
exhibit behaviour that reflects integrity?

Slide 8.23 Browaeys and Price, Understanding Cross-cultural Management, 1st Edition, Pearson Education Limited 2009
 Gender

Gender stereotypes may hamper developing an

appropriate effective style of leadership
Overcoming these stereotypes, while focusing on the
characteristics appropriate to the position, is the key task
of any candidate for leadership, whether male or female
Male and female leaders, it appears, display differing
behavioural tendencies whatever their country of origin
Although leadership style may be based on gender,
differences in the leadership style employed are based
more on culture than on gender

Slide 8.24 Browaeys and Price, Understanding Cross-cultural Management, 1st Edition, Pearson Education Limited 2009
 Conclusion

There are consistent elements of leadership

which are recognized across cultures but whose
form may vary between cultures
Some modern concepts of leadership generated
in the West appear to have their antecedents in
the East
Different cultures can generate similar
perceptions of leadership, even if the contexts
within which leadership is affected are very
different

Slide 8.25 Browaeys and Price, Understanding Cross-cultural Management, 1st Edition, Pearson Education Limited 2009
 Class Exercise

Is gender a cultural trait? Give examples of a

good leader that has been successful in
leading his/her organizations without being
discriminated/prejudiced due to their gender?
A lot of war torn countries / politically unstable
countries like Pakistan, India, Croatia and
Thailand have female leaders / prime
ministers. Is it a coincidence or females make
better leaders in problematic countries?
Discuss.

Slide 8.26 Browaeys and Price, Understanding Cross-cultural Management, 1st Edition, Pearson Education Limited 2009