Cellular System

Lecture: 06 and onwards

Dr. Md. Jahirul Islam
Contents:
The Cellular Concepts - System Design Fundamentals
Concept of frequency reuse
Channel assignment strategies
Interference in cellular system
Handoff technique Types and Techniques
Improving coverage and capacity in cellular system
Reference(s):
Wireless Communication Principle and Practice, S. Rappaport (Chapter-2)
Slide Courtesy:
Prof. Dr. Md. Rafiqul Islam (1)
Dr. Mostafa Zaman Chowdhury
Definition of cell and frequency
reuse

Cell:
Each cellular base station is allocated a group of
radio channels to be used within a small
geographical area called a cell.
Frequency reuse or frequency planning:
The design process of selecting and allocating
channel groups for all of the cellular base station
within a system is called frequency reuse or
frequency planning.
 Why hexagonal cell ?
Unequal power
distribution in
the cell area

Uncovered
region

Almost equal power

distribution in
the cell area
Frequency reuse concepts
B The actual radio
G C coverage of a cell is
A known as Footprint
F D
B and is determined from
E
G C B field measurements or
A G C propagation prediction
F D A models.
E F D
E
 Frequency reuse capacity
S: Total no. of duplex channels available for use
K: A group of channels allocated for each cell
N: No. of cells in which S channels are divided
Total no. of available radio channels, S = KN
The N cells which collectively use the complete set of available frequencies
is called a cluster. If a cluster is replicated M times within the system, the
total no. of duplex channels C can be used as a measure of capacity and is
given by
C = MKN = MS B
G C
A
A cluster F D
E
 Method of location co-channel
cell in a cellular system
The number of cell per cluster: N i 2 ij j 2
To find the nearest co-channel neighbors of a particular cell, one must do the
following:
1) Move i cells along any chain of hexagons and then
2) Turn 600 counter clockwise and move j cells B
G C
A
F D
BE
For i = 2, j = 1, Number of
G C B
A G C
cell in a cluster, N = 7
F D A
E F D
E
Channel assignment strategies
Channel assignment strategies:
Fixed channel strategies:
Unused channels are used
Problems
Call is blocked if there is no unused available channels
Solution
Channel borrowing strategies (from neighboring cell)
Dynamic channel strategies:
Channels available under an MSC are used
The reuse distance of the channels is maintained
 Handoff Scenario at cell
boundary Types, purposes
and algorithms
Level at point A will be discussed
later.
Handoff threshold
Minimum acceptable signal to
Received signal level

maintain the call

Level at point B (call is terminated)
Time
Level at point B

Level at which handoff is made

(call properly transferred to BS2)
Time
Power margin = Pr handoff Pr minimum usable
A B
BS1 BS2 If too large unnecessary handoff
If too small call will be lost
 Umbrella cell approach

Large umbrella cell Small micro cell for

for high speed traffic low speed traffic
 Interference in cellular system
Sources of interference
Other base stations operating in the same frequency band
Energy leak from any noncellular system into the cellular
frequency band
Another mobile in the same cell
A call in progress in a neighboring cell
Effects of interference
Causes crosstalk
Call may be blocked or missed
Reduce QoS
Reduced capacity (Co-channel reuse ratio Q)
Reduced SNR
Increased outage probability
 Types of interference
Co-channel interference
Adjacent channel interference To reduce
co-channel
interference,
B co-channel
B G C cells must be
G C A
A F D separated by
Co-channel
Adjacent- a minimum
F D E
cells
channel distance
E
cells
Co-channel
Co-channel
cells
cells
There are several cells in a coverage area that use the same set of frequencies.
These cells are called co-channel cells
 Co-channel interference and
system capacity (continued)
R: Radius of the cell A

D: Distance between centers

of the nearest co-channel cells A D+R A

D R A D+R
Co-channel reuse ratio: D

D A D-R A
Q 3N D-R
R
A
N: cluster size. Small value of Q provides large capacity
Large value of Q improves transmission quality.
 Frequency reuse distance
Frequency reuse distance depends on many factors:
Number of cochannel cells in the vicinity of center cell
Type of geographic terrain contour
Transmitted power at each cell site

The frequency reuse distance,

D 3N R
3R N=3 (i=1, j=1)
N is the frequency
4.6R N=7 (i=1, j=2)
D= reuse pattern
6R N=12 (i=2, j=2)
N=19 (i=2, j=3) N i 2
ij j 2
7.55R
Small reuse distance results in large system capacity
 Number of customers in the system

During a busy hour, the number of calls per hour Qi for

each of ten cells is 2000, 1500, 3000, 500, 1000, 1200,
1800, 2500, 2800, 900. Assume that 60% of the
phones will be used during this period and that one call
is made per phone. Calculate the number of customer
in the system.
10
Qt Qi 17200 calls per hour
i 1
The number of customer in the system is
M t 17200 / 0.6 28,667
 Co-channel interference and
system capacity (continued)

S S
Signal to interference S : desired signal power from base station
i0: number of co-channel interfering cells
i0

I
ratio I
i Ii : Interference power
i 1

The average received power Pr at a distance d from the

transmitting antenna

n
d P0 is the power at a small distance d0
Pr P0 near the transmitting antenna
d0
n: path loss exponent whose values lies between 2 to 4 in urban region
 Co-channel interference and
system capacity (continued)

When the transmitting power of each base station is equal and

path loss exponent is the same through the coverage area

S R n
i0
I

iD n

i 1

If all the interfering base stations are equidistant from the desired base
station and if this distance is equal to D between cell centers

S D R

n
3N
n

I i0 i0
 Co-channel interference and
system capacity (continued)
2nd tier

S R n A
i0
I

iD n

A D+R
i 1 A
S R 4
D R A D+R
I 2( D R) 4 2( D R) 4 2 D 4
D

S 1 A D-R A
D-R
I 2(Q 1) 4 2(Q 1) 4 2Q 4
A
 Co-channel interference and
system capacity
D
Q 3N
R For cluster size 7, Q=
4.58 and S/I in worst
case is about 17 dB. To
Cluster Co-channel decrease S/I ratio
size (N) reuse ratio (Q) further, the cluster size
may increase to 9, which
i=1, j=1 3 3 gives Q = 5.2. S/I must
i=1, j=2 7 4.58 be improved for new
cluster size, but system
i=0, j=3 9 5.2 capacity decrease from
i=2, j=2 12 6 1/7 to 1/9.
 Problem
Compare interference from the first tier of 6 interferers with
that from 12 interferers (first and 2nd tiers).

Solution: S

R n

D1 R1
n

4.6
4

=74.62
From the first tier, 6

D
I n 6 6
i
i 1 S/I in db=10log74.62

S I 1st tier 18.72

 Problem
From the first and 2nd tiers
S S 1

6
6{( D1 R1 ) 4 ( D2 R2 ) 4 }
I I 2i
I
1i
i 1

D2 R1 2D1 R1 2 4.6 9.2

S I 1st tier2ndtier 18.46 dB
Negligible amount of interference is contributed by the six interferers
from the 2nd tier
Adjacent channel interference
Interference resulting from signals which are
adjacent in frequency to the desired signal is called
adjacent channel interference.
Adjacent channel interference results from imperfect
receiver filters which allow nearby frequencies to leak
into the passband.
Adjacent channel interference can be minimized
through careful filtering and channel assignment.
Improving coverage and
capacity in cellular systems
Cell splitting
Sectoring
Repeater for range extension
Microcell/Femtocell zone concept
 Cell splitting
Pr [old cell boundary] Pt1R-n
G C
A Pr [New cell boundary] Pt2(R/2)-n
Pt1
F D Pt 2 With n = 4
E
16
Advantages:
C B Increased capacity
G C Reduced interference
A Reduced power transmission
Splitted cells Reduction in antenna height
Limitation:
Increased no. of HO results
Handoff are more frequent
Increased load on switching and control
Increased signaling Channel assignment become difficult
Reduced QoS
 Sectoring
Replace omni-directional 1 2 1 6
antenna by directional 3 3 4 5
2
antenna 1 2 1 6
3 3 4 5
2

120 degree sectoring 60 degree sectoring

Advantages:
Increased capacity
Reduced interference
Reduced cluster size
Increased frequency utilization
Limitation:
More no. of antenna at each BS
Handoff are more frequent
Decreased trunk capacity
Loss of traffic
Reduction of co-channel interference
by 120 degree sectoring
Directional
B
G antenna
A C
F A
B E D
G B E
A C B
F A G C
E F D A
B E F D
G B E
A C
F A
F D Center cell
E
E
The microcell concept

Zone selector
Base
station

Tx/Rx
Tx/Rx

Microwave or
fiber optic link

Tx/Rx
The microcell zone concept

D D/R = 3
D

Rz Dz/Rz = 4.6
Dz
R
Reduces cluster size
from N=7 to N=3:
results in 2.33 times
increase in system
capacity.
 What are Femtocells?
Small cellular BS, designed for use in residential or small business
environments
Fully featured but very low power single-mode mobile phone
Connected using standard broadband DSL, Cable, FTTx, PLC,
WiMAX etc.
Operate in licensed spectrum
 Advantages of Femtocell
Improve coverage
Enhanced QoS
Improved signal quality causes less battery drain
Licensed spectrum
Reduced cellular network congestion
Plug and play
Simple to deploy
Lower cost
No need of dual-mode terminal
Why Handoff?
Handoff is needed in two situations
When cell site receive weak signals from the
mobile unit (at the cell boundary -100 dBm)
Receiving weak signals when mobile unit is
reaching signal-strength holes within the cell site.
 Classifications of handoff

Handoff

Digital Analog
System System

Hard Soft Softer Hard

handoff handoff handoff handoff only
 Natures of handoff

Hard handoff: This is a break-before-make process and

(used in handoff between two frequencies. All FDMA, TDMA and
GSM) OFDMA digital systems and analog systems can perform
hard handoffs.
Soft handoff: This is a make-before-break process. It is
difficult to perform hard handoff between two code
channels. So CDMA has to perform soft handoff. The
capacity is reduced in the soft handoff region. The drop
call is also reduced due to the diverse nature of switching
two code channels.
Softer handoff: Handoff occurring between sectors only at
the serving cell. It is a make-before-break type using
combined diversity of two code channels.
 Types of handoff
Intracell handoff: can be a sector to sector handoff
Intercell handoff: a handoff form an old cell to a new cell
Inter BSC/MSC handoff: using compressed mode, referred to as
the slotted mode. In this mode, the transmission and reception
are halted for a short time of the order of a few milliseconds in
order to perform measurements on the other frequencies from
other systems.
Intersystem handoff: handoff between two same type systems.
Intercarrier handoffs: handoff occurs between two carriers
Intermode handoff: the handoff occurs from one of the modes
TDMA, CDMA, GSM AND GPRS to another mode.
Handover: Cells Controlled by the Same BSC

2.

4.

2.
old

BSC

3.
1.

3.

new
 Handover: Different BSCs but the Same MSC

old
BSC/TRC

MSC

new
BSC/TRC

9805157
 Handover: Cells Controlled by Different MSCs

GSM PLM PSTN

old
MSC-A
BSC/TRC

MSC-B

new
BSC/TRC

9805158
 Algorithms of handoff
MCHO (Mobile Control Handoff): It is the
responsibility of MS to choose the best BS
NCHO (Network Control Handoff): It is the
responsibility of network to choose the best BS.
NCHO/MAHO (Network Control Handoff/Mobile
Assists Handoff): It is the responsibility of
network to choose the best BS, but with the
information supplied by the mobiles assist.
 Soft handoff
A hard handoff needs to handoff a call from one frequency
carrier to another frequency carrier. In CDMA systems, we
can not use hard handoffs, because the traffic channels are
the coded channels which are sharing the same frequency
carrier. There are two variations: soft handoff and softer
handoff. Handoff
Overlapped region region
depends on base station
power. More power gives
bigger overlapped region.
Small power results
narrow overlapped region
and call drop occurs
 The call drop situation
In the overlapped region, the call drop rate depends on the
situation where the C/I of a combined signal (which is higher
than a single signal) is lower than the required level at the
home cell and the C/I level of a new cell is also lower than
the required level.
If the user unit has picked and dropped many weak signals and
missed a strong signal in the soft handoff region the call can be
dropped.
At the beginning, the combined signal received by the UE is
strong in the soft handoff region. But when the UE went into an
area with many other UEs, interference increases and the C/I
reduces. In this situation, the overlapped region was exited and
disappeared.
 Performance analysis: admission
control and handoffs
Ref: Mobile Wireless Communications by Mischa Schwartz (Chapter 9)

Overview of performance concepts

Overview of performance
concepts
1/c = average channel holding time
1/ = average call length
1/ = average dwell time.
Performance Analysis
If a mobile moving at a speed V crosses a series of
cells of area S and perimeter (boundary) length L.
Then the dwell time parameter is given by

In particular, for a circular cell of radius r, becomes

 Performance Analysis (Math)
Example 1 (Macrocell): radius r = 10 km, speed V = 60 km/hr
Average time between handoffs, or average dwell time = 1/ = 940 sec
Probability of a handoff = /( + ) = 0.17
Average channel holding or occupancy time = 1/c = 170 sec
Example 2 (Smaller cell): radius r = 1 km, speed V = 5 km/hr
Average time between handoffs = 1/ = 1100 sec
Probability of a handoff = /( + ) = 0.15
Average channel holding or occupancy time = 1/c = 170 sec
Example 3 (Microcell): radius r = 100 m, speed V = 5 km/hr
Average time between handoffs = 1/ = 110 sec
Probability of a handoff = /( + ) = 0.64
Average channel holding or occupancy time = 1/c = 72 sec
 Performance Analysis
(Hand of traffic rate)
n = average new-traffic intensity, in
calls/sec, generated in each cell
Pb = probability of blocking a new-
call attempt
h = average handoff traffic intensity,
also in calls/sec, due to handoffs
attempting to enter a cell from all
neighboring cells.
phf = probability a handoff attempt is
dropped for lack of channels in
the new cell

The flow balance equation may be written

 Hand of traffic rate (Cont)
Solving this flow equation for the handoff rate h in terms of the new-call
arrival rate n, one obtains

The forced termination probability

See page 265 of Mobile Wireless Communication by Mischa Schwartz

 Handoff Schemes
(Single Traffic System)
Ref: Handbook of Wireless Networks and Mobile Computing,
John Wiley & Sons (Pages 8-11)

Nonpriority Scheme

Figure 1: A generic system model Figure 2: State transition diagram for Figure 1.
for handoff.

= Mean rate of the channel holding time (exponential distribution).

o and H = mean rate of generated originating and handoff calls in a cell
according to Poisson processes, respectively.
 Handoff Schemes
(Single Traffic System)
(Continued)
Priority Scheme

Figure 3: System model with priority Figure 4: State transition diagram for Figure 3.
for handoff call.

Important: See attached sheet for derivation