Lecture 5

Sensors and
Transducers

1
Contents
Classification and description of sensors and transducers
Sensor characteristics
Transducer parameters, definitions and terminology

2
OBJECTIVES

After completing this lesson, you should be able to do

the following:
1. Explain the basic principles of operation of a variety of
resistive sensors
2. Explain in some details the theory and use of strain
gauges
3. Explain in some details the theory and use of thermistors.
4. Explain in some details the theory and use of resistance
temperature detectors (RTDs).

3
Definition
The words sensor and transducer are both widely used
in the description of measurement systems.

The former is popular in the USA whereas the latter has

been used in Europe for many years.

A dictionary definition of sensor is a device that detects a

change in a physical stimulus and turns it into a signal
which can be measured or recorded.

A dictionary definition of transducer is a device that transfers

power from one system to another in the same or in the different
form.

4
Sensor and Transducer Classification
Sensors and transducers are classified according to:

1. their principles of operations(resistive, capacitive,

inductive, etc)
2. the physical property that they use (piezoelectric,
photovoltaic, ..etc)
3. the functions that they perform (measurement of length,
pressure, .. etc)
4. self-generating transducers, modulating transducers,
modifying transducers.

5
Sensor and Transducer Classification
Modulating and self-generating transducers
1. Modulating transducer requires an auxiliary energy
source.
Examples: Strain gauge, thermal resistor, liquid-
crystal-display

2. Self-generating transducer requires no auxiliary

energy source.
Examples: Solar cell, thermocouple, piezoelectric
element

6
Sensor and Transducer Classification
Sensors classed under their principles of operations
include:

1. Resistive Position Transducers

2. Strain Gauges
3. Capacitive Transducers
4. Inductive Transducers
5. And a lot more

7
Features of Sensors
The desirable features of sensors are:

1. Accuracy - closeness to true value of variable;

Accuracy = actual value sensed value;

2. Precision - little or no random variability in measured

variable

3. Operating range wide operating range; accurate and

precise over entire sensing range

8
Features of Sensors (contd.)
4. Calibration easy to calibrate; no drift tendency for
sensor to lose accuracy over time.

5. Reliability no failures

6. Cost and ease of operation purchase price, cost of

installation and operation

9
Resistive Transducers
Definition
A resistive transducer is one in which a variation in a
quantity a quantity or signal produces a variation
in resistance, which in turn produces a proportional
conversion to a quantity or signal in another form.

One representative example of a resistive transducer is the

linear or rotary potentiometer. It is commonly used in
industrial measurement and control work to sense the
position of an object, or the distance it has moved.
1. The Potentiometer
The potentiometer uses a resistance element with a sliding
contact (called the wiper) linked to the object being
monitored by a mechanical shaft .
The wiper can be either angular (rotational) or linear (slider
type) in its movement.
Movement of the wiper causes the resistance value
between the wiper/slider and the two end connections to
change giving an electrical signal. Output has a
proportional relationship between the actual wiper position
and its resistance change.
The Potentiometer (continued)

Rotary
potentiometer

Linear potentiometer
The Potentiometer (continued)
The advantage of this type of sensor is that the output can be
steady DC or AC voltage that changes when the
displacement changes.

Potentiometer are quite inexpensive, very rugged and easy to

use. However, they are not as accurate as some other
position transducers. This sensor suffers from the following
drawbacks:
Limited resolution
Friction in the wiper
High electric noise
The Potentiometer (continued)

Example of a simple Positional Sensing Circuit

15
2. Strain Gauge
Strain gauge is a passive transducer that uses electrical
resistance variation in wires to sense the strain produced
by a force on the wires.

Measurement for
Weight
Pressure
Mechanical force
Displacement

16
Review of terms
When external forces are applied to a stationary object, stress
and strain are the result.

Stress is defined as the objects internal resisting forces.

Strain is defined as the fractional change (L/L) in the
dimensions of an object as a result of mechanical stress
17
(force/area)
Review of terms
For a uniform distribution of internal resisting forces, stress
can be calculated by dividing the applied force (F) by the
unit area (A):

F
Stress,
A
Review of terms
Strain is calculated by dividing the total deformation of the
original length by the original length (L):

L
Strain,
L
(unitless)
Review of terms
Modulus of Elasticity
The constant of proportionally between stress and strain for
linear stress-strain curve is known as the modulus of elasticity
of the material, E, or Youngs modulus.

E

E = Youngs modulus in kilograms per-square meter

= The stress in kilograms per square meter

= The strain (no units)

20
Review of terms
If a wire is held under tension, it gets slightly longer and its
cross-sectional area is reduced.

Resistance of the wire is related to its length (l), its area of

cross-section (A), and resistivity () of its the material as

l
R
A
This changes its resistance (R) in proportion to the strain
sensitivity of the wires resistance.
Review of terms
When a strain is introduced, the strain sensitivity, which is
also called the gauge factor (GF), is given by:

(R / R)
GF
L / L
where
GF = gauge factor
R = the initial resistance in ohms (without strain)
R = the change in initial resistance in ohms
L = the initial length in meters (without strain)
L = the change in initial length in meters

A high gauge factor means a relatively large resistance

change for a given strain. Such a change is more easily
measured than a small resistance change.
 Fabrication and use
Typical strain gauges consist of a foil or wire grid
covered by two sheets of insulation (polyimide)
The gauge is attached to the beam under test object
with an adhesive.
Longitudinal segments are aligned with the direction of
stress so the variation in length under loaded
conditions is along the gauge sensitive axis.
Fabrication and use (contd.)
Loading the beam increases the length of the gauge wire
and also reduces its cross-sectional area. Both of these
effects will increase the resistance of the wire.
The force on the beam can be detected through the
change in resistance.

24
Example

A strain is glued to a structure. It has a gauge factor of 2.1

and a resistance of 120.2 . The structure is stressed and
the resistance changes to 120.25 . Calculate the strain and
convert this into stress.
Take E = 205 GPa

Solution
R 120.25 120.2 0.05
R / R 0.05 / 120.2 4.16 10 4
1

/ G 4.16 10 4 / 2.1 1.98110 4

E 1.98110 4 205 109 40.61Mpa

25
Strain Gauge Signal Conditioning Circuits
Generally speaking, strain gauges are usually placed in a
Wheatstone bridge circuit to measure the change in their
resistance.

Depending on the number of active strain gauges used in

the bridge configuration such a configuration is called a
one-arm bridge, a two-arm bridge or a four-arm bridge.

26
Strain Gauge Signal Conditioning Circuits

1. A One-arm Bridge (Quarter Bridge)

Single active gauge is required

Passive quarter bridge completion resistors
Temperature variation in specimen reduces accuracy
R1, R2 and R3 are completion resistors
R4 replaced with a strain gauge
If R1 = R2 = R3 = R and the active strain gauge resistance is
given by
R
R g R 1
R
where (R/R) is the fractional change in gauge resistance
because of strain, then the bridge off-null voltage will be
given by
R
VS R VS R VS l
Vo GF
4 1 R 4 R 4 l
2R
where (R/R) << 1, GF stands for the gauge factor, and (/)
is the fractional change in length.
Example
Four strain gauges are formed into bridge with only one active
gauge. The nominal resistance of all them is 120 . The gauge
factor is 2.1 and the supply voltage is 10 V. Calculate the strain
when the output from the bridge is 20 mV.

Solution R
VS R Vs GF
Vo
4 1 R 4 2GF
2R
where

(R / R) R / R
GF
L / L 29
Solution (continued)

VSG
VO
4 2G
4VO 4 0.02

G (VS 2VO ) 2.1(10 0.04)
3.825 10 3

30
2. Two-arm Bridge

Two active gauges are required

Completion resistors provide half bridge circuitry
Compensates partially for temperature variations
R1 and R3 are completion resistors
R2 and R4 replaced with strain gauges
2. Two-arm Bridge (continued)

This strain gauge circuit exploits a

property of bridge circuits to provide
automatic temperature compensation
(so that changes in specimen
temperature do not compromise strain
measurement accuracy).

The "dummy" gauge is attached to

the specimen in such a way that it is
not subjected to strain like the
"working" gauge is. It it merely
exposed to the same specimen
temperature.
3. A Four-arm Bridge

Four active gauges are used, one in each arm.

When the gauges are placed on a specimen, such as a
cantilever beam in bending, gauges 1 and 3 experience tensile
strains, while gauges 2 and 4 experience compressive strains.
This arrangement has double the sensitivity of the previous two
configurations.
This bridge arrangement also provides temperature
compensation.
Effect of Lead Wires in Two-Wire Strain-Gauge Bridge
Frequently, a strain gauge is mounted on a component that is
located a significant distance from the bridge and measurement
system. The gauge must be connected to the bridge with two
long wires, as shown in the following figure.

R1 R2

Strain
gauge
R3

With this arrangement, two detrimental effects occur:

(1) signal attenuation, and
(2) loss of temperature compensation.
Assume R1 = R3 and the lead wire resistance RL is zero. Then
Rg Vs
Vo Vs
R R 2
2 g
If R3 = Rg; then VO = 0 and the bridge is balanced. So, if we
balanced the bridge manually by adjusting R3, then at
balance
Rg = R3

On the other hand, if we did not care to manually balance the

bridge, we can just solve the above equation to get the
expression for Rg
Vs 2Vo
Rg R2
Vs 2Vo
In the real situation the lead resistance, RL 0. Then the
expression for Rg becomes

Vs 2Vo Vs 2Vo
Rg R2 2 RL
Vs 2Vo Vs 2Vo
So, there is an error in the strain gauge resistance value
because of the RL resistance.

R1 R2

Strain
gauge
R3

Three-Wire Circuit
 The detrimental effect of long lead wires can be reduced
by employing the simple 3-wire system shown below. If
wires A and B are perfectly matched in length, their
impedance effects will cancel because each is in an
opposite leg of the bridge. The third wire, C, acts as a
sense lead and carries no current.

R1 R2 RL
A
VS - vo + C
RL Rg
R3 B RL

Three-Wire Circuit
Again we solve for Rg:

Vs 2Vo 4Vo
Rg R2 RL
Vs 2Vo Vs 2Vo
The error term will be small if Vo is small, i.e., the bridge is
close to balance. The 3-wire configuration works well with
devices like strain gauges, which change resistance value
by only a few percent.
Strain Gauge Type Pressure Transducer
A typical pressure transducer would contain a metal
diaphragm which bends under pressure. The strain gauges
are connected together to form a Wheatstone Bridge circuit.
When pressure is applied to the diaphragm, it deforms and
stretches or compresses the strain gauges, which causes an
imbalance in the bridge circuit, and a change in the output
voltage.
Pressure

Cable

39
STRAIN GAUGE TYPE LOAD CELL

A typically load cell consists of

a metal cylinder with strain
gauges fixed to it. When the
cylinder is stretched or
compressed, the strain gauges
convert the force into a change
in resistance and hence
voltage. Since the elements
require a supply voltage, the
cell usually has 4 wires, two for
the supply and two for the
output.

40
 S BEAM LOAD CELLS
The S Beam range of tension load cells
are suitable for smaller Silo, vessel and
tank weighing applications. Capacities Crane Scale
from 10kg to 5,000kg.
3. Thermistor
The name thermistor is derived from thermally sensitive
resistor, since the resistance of a thermistor varies as a
function of temperature. It is an electrical device made of a
solid semiconductor with a high temperature sensitivity.
When a thermistor is used as a temperature sensing
element, the relationship between resistance and
temperature can be expressed as:

B /
R Ae
Thermistor Characteristic 43

Resistance, k

Common forms of thermistors and the typical variation of resistance with

temperature for an NTC thermistor.
Thermistor Properties
Range of measurement: Maximum up to 300C to avoid
melting of semiconductor materials. Normally, it can be
used for low temperature range measurements.
Response time: 0.5 seconds or faster.
Sensitivity: Highly sensitive, it can be changed by 1 k for
change in 1C.
Probe features:
1. Immersion sensor, can be placed
directly in the water flow.
2. Rugged, resistant to heat shock
and moisture.
3. Quick response.
4. Precise temperature measurement
Coffee maker NTC thermistor due to direct water contact.
temperature sensor probe
Thermistor Signal conditioning
Thermistors are passive resistive devices which means we
need to pass a current through it produce a measurable
voltage
VDC output. The thermistors are generally connected in
series with a suitable biasing resistor to form a potential
divider network and the choice of resistor gives a voltage
output at some predetermined temperature point or value.

VDC

RT
Vout

R
Example
The following thermistor has a resistance value of 10K at
25C and a resistance value of 100 at 100C. Calculate the
voltage drop across the thermistor and hence its output
voltage (Vout) for both temperatures when connected in series
with a 1K resistor across a 12 V power supply.

VDC 12 V

RT
Vout

R = 1 k

46
Solution
At 25C,

12 V 1.09 V
R2 1000
Vout VDC
R1 R2 10000 1000

At 100C,

12 V 10.9.09 V
R2 1000
Vout VDC
R1 R2 100 1000
Thermistor Aplications
Example 1: Thermistor used as level indicating device.

Circuit operation:
When thermistor is out of the liquid its temperature is low (say) and
its resistance is high (assuming NTC thermistor). When the liquid
level rises and the thermistor is submerged in the liquid, its
temperature rises and its resistance decreases. The drop in the
thermistors circuit current is detected by the sensing circuit and the 48
alarm is raised.
Example 2: Thermistor Motor Protection Relays
Example 2: Thermistor Motor Protection Relays

PTC Thermistor
The thermistor motor
protection relay monitors the
winding temperature of motor.
The PTC sensor is
Thermistor
Motor
incorporated in the motor
Protection windings thus measuring the
Relay motor heat directly. This direct
temperature measurement
enables the thermistor motor
protection relay to evaluate
various motor conditions such
as overheating, overload and
insufficient cooling.
Example 3: PTCR Motor Starter

Single phase induction motors (e.g in compressors for refrigerators

and air conditioners) can effectively be started when an auxiliary coil
is used in the starting phase. The auxiliary coil is cut off from the
circuit after the starting phase. For this purpose, PTC thermistor is
employed.
When high voltage is applied to the PTC thermistor, the high current
causes PTC thermistor to heat up and eventually the resistance to
increase. A high current flows initially (starting phase ) and then
decreases in relation to the increase in resistance. After the starting
phase, a low residual current flows the auxiliary coil.

PTC Thermistor Motor Starter

4. Resistance Temperature Detectors
(RTD)
It is a temperature sensor that is based on a metal
resistance increasing with the temperature. Metals used
in these devices vary from platinum, which is very
repeatable, quite sensitive, and very expensive, to nickel,
which is not quite as repeatable, more sensitive, and less
expensive.
 For pure metals, the characteristic relationship that
governs resistance is given by:

R1 Ro (1 at bt 2 ct 3 ...)

where:
Ro = resistance at reference temperature (usually at
ice, 0C),
R1 = resistance at temperature T1,
a = temperature coefficient of resistance,/ (C)
b,c = coefficients calculated on the basis of two or
more known resistance-temperature
(calibration) points

53
RTD Temperature Characteristics
In the linear temperature range between T1 and T2,

R1 Ro [1 O T ]
where: R1 = approximation of resistance at temperature T1
Ro = resistance at temperature To
T = T1 To,
o = fractional change in resistance per degree of
temperature at To
Example
A Platinum resistance thermometer has a resistance of 101
at 0 C and the value of is 0.00385. In operation the
resistance is 105 . Calculate the temperature.

SOLUTION
R1 RO [1 O T ]
RO [1 O T1 To ]
Solving the above equation for T1, we obtain

R 105
1 1
T1 RO 101 12.987C
a 0.00385 56
Thermistor and RTD Chacteristics

57
A typically example of RTD is PT100 sensor as shown in
figure.

Temperature sensor PT-100

 Industrial RTDs are commonly available with elements of
platinum, nickel, 70% nickel-30 iron or copper.

The entire resistance thermometer is an assembly of

parts, which include the sensing element, internal lead
wires, internal supporting and insulating materials and
protection tube or case.
RTD Signal Conditioning
The common values of resistance for a platinum RTD
range from 10 ohms for the bird-cage model to several
thousand ohms for the film RTD. The single most
common value is 100 ohms at 0C. The DIN 43760
standard temperature coefficient of platinum wire is =
.00385. For a 100 ohm wire, this corresponds to + 0.385
ohms/C at 0C. This value for is actually the average
slope from 0C to 100C.
1. Both the slope and the absolute value are small numbers,
especially when we consider the fact that the
measurement wires leading to the sensor may be several
ohms or even tens of ohms. A small lead impedance can
contribute a significant error to our temperature
measurement.
Example: Effect of lead resistance

Estimate the error in the measured temperature for the following

situation where the platinum RTD ( = 00385) has a resistance of
100 and the lead resistance contributes a total of (5 + 5 ) = 10
to the resistance measured across the two ends of the lead wires.

Solution
A ten ohm lead impedance implies 10/.385 26C error in
measurement.
This example shows that even the relatively small resistance
of the lead wires can contribute a significant error to the
measured temperature.
RTD Signal Conditioning Circuits

1. Potentiometer circuit

The easiest way to connect

an RTD to a measurement
device is with a 2-wire
connection. A common
approach is to drive the RTD
with a precision current
source, as shown in the
figure. With this method, the
two wires that provide the
RTD with its excitation current
are also used to measure the
voltage across the sensor.
Disadvantage of the potentiometer circuit method

Because of the low nominal resistance of RTDs,

measurement accuracy can be drastically affected by lead
wire resistance. For example, lead wires with a resistance
of 1 connected to a 100 platinum RTD cause a 1
percent measurement error.
2. Wheatstone Bridge

The RTDs is generally used in a bridge circuit. The RTDs

can be found with two leads, or three leads, or four leads
for connections.
The two wires type is used for short distance application,
where the process is too near to the controller. The
connection will be as shown in figure, where the terminal
block is connected to the bridge circuit.

64
Two wires RTD terminal block connection
 Three-wire RTDs are used for remote applications as
shown in figure.

Photograph of head
wiring in a typical
three wire PT100
RTD (showing the
two red and one
white wires)
65
 Four wires RTD can be used with low current source to
avoid the self heating problem in the resistance. We feed
the current to close the circuit with RTD and measure the
output voltage across the other two terminals which is
proportional to the RTD value. The terminal block
connection is illustrated in the following figure.

66

Four wires RTD terminal block connection

Four-Wire Circuits
A four-wire circuit is shown
below. This circuit topology
completely eliminates lead
losses by having two sense
leads and two excitation
leads. Since no current
flows through either of the
sense leads, the
measurement system is
able to directly access the
voltage at the target
resistance.
In a four-wire circuit, it is
a simple matter to
compute the sensor
resistance:
VS
RRTD
I
Clearly, the four-wire
circuit provides superior
measurement accuracy
regardless of conductor
length or wire diameter.
5. Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
As its name implies, the Light Dependent Resistor is a resistive
light sensor that changes its electrical resistance from several
thousand Ohms in the dark to only a few hundred Ohms when
light falls upon it. The net effect is a decrease in resistance for an
increase in illumination.

68
 Materials used as the semiconductor substrate include, Lead
Sulphide, (PbS) Lead Selenide, (PbSe) Indium Antimonide,
(InSb) which detect light in the INFRARED range and the most
commonly used for all is Cadmium Sulphide (Cds), as its
spectral response curve closely matches that of the human eye
and can even be controlled using a simple torch as a light
source. Typically it has a peak sensitivity wavelength (p) of
about 569nm to 600nm in the visible spectral range.

69
LDR Signal Conditioning Circuit

1. Potentiometer Circuit
A Light Dependent Resistor is generally connected in series with a
resistor with a single DC voltage supply across it. The connection is
shown on the right.
The resistive value of the light dependent VDC
resistor LDR will determine the amount of
voltage drop across the series resistor R1.
The current in a series connection is same
and as the resistance of the light
dependent resistor changes due to the
light intensity, the output voltage will be
determined by using the voltage divider
formula.
R1
Vout VDC
R1 RLDR 70
END OF PART 1