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65-70% 25-30%
(dry wt) H2O (dry wt)
(25-30%)
Vertebral fractures
cervical fractures
spine loaded through head
e.g., football, diving, gymnastics
once spearing was outlawed
in football the number of cervical
injuries declined dramatically
lumbar fractures
weight lifters, linemen, or gymnasts
spine is loaded in hyperlordotic
(aka swayback) position
3
Tensile Loading
5
Bone Compressive Strength
Material Compressive
Strength (MPa)
Femur (cortical) 131-224
Steel 370
7
Bending Forces
Usually a 3- or 4-point
force application
8
Torsional Forces Caused by a twisting force
produces shear, tensile, and
compressive loads
9
Strength and Stiffness of Bone Tissue
evaluated using relationship between
applied load and amount of deformation
LOAD - DEFORMATION CURVE
10
Stress = Force/Area Strain = Change in Length/Angle
elastic
region elastic thru 3%deformation
Stress (Load)
12
Strain (Deformation)
Elastic Biomaterials (Bone)
deformation (length)
13
Anisotropic response
behavior of bone is dependent
on direction of applied load
14
Bone Anisotropy
trabecular
tension
compression
cortical
shear
tension
compression
0 50 100 150 200
Maximum Stress (MPa)
From: Biomechanics of the Musculo-skeletal System, Nigg and Herzog 15
Viscoelastic Response
behavior of bone is dependent
on rate load is applied
fracture
deformation 16
SKELETON
axial skeleton
skull, thorax, pelvis, &
vertebral column
appendicular skeleton
upper and lower
extremities
should be familiar with
all major bones
17
Purposes of Skeleton
protect vital organs
18
Bone Vernacular
condyle
a rounded process of a bone that
articulates with another bone
e.g. femoral condyle
epicondyle
a small condyle
e.g. humeral epicondyle
19
Bone Vernacular
facet
a small, fairly flat, smooth surface of a
bone, generally an articular surface
e.g. vertebral facets
foramen
a hole in a bone through which nerves or
vessels pass
e.g. vertebral foramen
20
Bone Vernacular
fossa
a shallow dish-shaped section of a bone
that provides space for an articulation with
another bone or serves as a muscle
attachment
glenoid fossa
process
a bony prominence
olecranon process
21
Bone Vernacular
tuberosity
a raised section of bone to which a
ligament, tendon, or muscle attaches;
usually created or enlarged by the stress of
the muscles pull on that bone during
growth
radial tuberosity
22
Long Bones
e.g. femur, tibia
1 long dimension
23
Short Bones
e.g. carpals and
tarsals
designed for
strength not mobility
24
Flat Bones
e.g. skull, ribs,
scapula
usually provide
protection
25
Irregular Bones
e.g. vertebrae
provide protection,
support and
leverage
26
Sesamoid Bones
trabecular, cancellous,
or spongy, bone
(porosity ~70%)
28
Long Bone Structure
epiphyseal plate
metaphysis cartilage separating
either end of diaphysis metaphysis from epiphysis
filled with trabecular bone
diaphysis
shaft of bone
epiphysis
proximal and distal
ends of a long bone
29
Biomechanical Characteristics of Bone
31
Epiphyseal Closures
Vertebrae
Ribs
Humerus, prox.
Humerus, dist.
Ulna, prox.
Ulna, dist.
Tibia, prox.
Tibia, dist.
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
From: Biomechanics of Human Movement, Adrian and Cooper 32
Circumferential
Bone Growth
Wolffs Law
bone is laid down where needed and
resorbed where not needed
shape of bone reflects its function
tennis arm of pro tennis players have
cortical thicknesses 35% greater than
contralateral arm (Keller & Spengler, 1989)
osteoclasts resorb or take-up bone
osteoblasts lay down new bone
34
Bone Deposits
A response to regular activity
regular exercise provides stimulation to maintain
bone throughout the body
tennis players and baseball pitchers
develop larger and more dense bones in
dominant arm
male and female runners have higher than
average bone density in both upper and
lower extremities
non-weightbearing exercise (swimming,
cycling) can have positive effects on
BMD
35
Bone Resorption
lack of mechanical stress
Calcium (Ca) levels decrease
Ca removed through blood via kidneys
increases the chance of kidney stones
weightless effects (hypogravity)
astronauts use exercise routines to provide
stimulus from muscle tension
these are only tensile forces - gravity is compressive
36
37
Typical Vertical GRF during running
30
20
Fz (N/kg)
15
10
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
time (ms)
38
TVIS
Treadmill Vibration Isolation and
Stabilization System
39
Changes in bone over time
Early Years
Osgood-Schlatters disease
development of inflammation, bony deposits, or
an avulsion fracture of the tibial tuberosity
muscle-bone strength imbalance
growth factor between bone length and
muscle tendon unit (e.g., rapid growth of femur
and tibia places large strain on patellar tendon
and tibial tuberosity)
during puberty muscle development
(testosterone) may outpace bone development
allowing muscle to pull away from bone
40
Changes in bone over time
Early Years
overuse injuries
repeated stresses mold skeletal structures
specifically for that activity
Little Leaguers Elbow
premature closure of epiphyseal disc
Gymnasts
4X greater occurrence of low back pathology in
young female gymnasts than in general
population (Jackson, 1976)
41
Changes in bone over time
Adult Years
little change in length
most change in density
lack of use decreases density
DECREASE STRENGTH OF BONE
activity
increased activity leads to increased
diameter, density, cortical width and Ca
42
Changes in bone over time
Adult Years
hormonal influence
estrogen to maintain bone minerals
previously only consider after menopause
now see link between amenorrhea and
decreased estrogen - Female Athlete Triad
disordered amenorrhea osteoporosis
eating
low body fat low estrogen
excessive training levels
43
Changes in Bone Over Time
Older Adults
30 yrs males and 40 yrs females
BMD peaks (Frost, 1985; Oyster et al., 1984)
decrease BMD, diameter and
mineralization after this
activity slows aging process
44
Bone Mass (g of Ca) Age, Bone Mass and Gender
1000
500
0 25 50 75 100
Age (yr)
From: Biomechanics of Musculoskeletal Injury, Whiting and Zernicke 45
Reduced BMD
Osteopenia slightly elevated risk
of fracture
age
women lose 0.5-1% of their bone mass
each year until age 50 or menopause
after menopause rate of bone loss
increases (as high as 6.5%)
47
Do you get shorter with age?
Osteoporosis compromises structural
integrity of vertebrae
weakened trabecular bone
vertebrae are crushed
actually lose height
more weight anterior to spine so the
compressive load on spine creates wedge-
shaped vertebrae
create a kyphotic curve known as Dowagers Hump
for some reason mens vertebrae increase in
diameter so these effects are minimized
48
Preventing Osteoporosis
$13.8 billion in 1995 (~$38 million/day)
Lifestyle Choices
proper diet
sufficient calcium, vitamin D,
dietary protein and phosphorous (too much?)
tobacco, alcohol, and caffeine
EXERCISE, EXERCISE, EXERCISE
47% incidence of osteoporosis in sedentary population
compared to 23% in hard physical labor occupations
(Brewer et al., 1983)
49
Osteoporosis, Activity and the Elderly
Rate of bone loss (50-72 yr olds, Lane et al., 1990)
4% over 2 years for runners
6-7% over 2 years for controls