Chapter 24

The Digestive
System

Lecture Presentation by
Lee Ann Frederick
University of Texas at Arlington

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 An Introduction to the Digestive System

The Digestive System

Acquires nutrients from environment
Anabolism
Uses raw materials to synthesize essential
compounds
Catabolism
Decomposes substances to provide energy cells
need to function
Requires oxygen
Organic molecules: carbohydrates, proteins, fats

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 24-1 The Digestive Tract
The Digestive Tract
Also called gastrointestinal (GI) tract or alimentary
canal
Is a muscular tube
Extends from oral cavity to anus
Passes through pharynx, esophagus, stomach, and
small and large intestines

Accessory organs
Teeth, tongue, glandular organs (salivary glands
gall bladder, liver, pancreas)

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Figure 24-1 The Components of the Digestive System (Part 1 of 2).

Major Organs of
the Digestive Tract
Oral Cavity (Mouth)
Ingestion, mechanical processing with
accessory organs (teeth and tongue),
moistening, mixing with salivary secretions
Pharynx
Muscular propulsion of materials into
the esophagus

Esophagus
Transport of materials to the stomach

Stomach
Chemical breakdown of materials by acid
and enzymes; mechanical processing
through muscular contractions

Small Intestine
Enzymatic digestion and absorption of
water, organic substrates, vitamins, and ions

Large Intestine
Dehydration and compaction of indigestible
materials in preparation for elimination
Anus

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Figure 24-1 The Components of the Digestive System (Part 2 of 2).

Accessory Organs of
the Digestive System
Teeth
Mechanical processing by
chewing (mastication)

Tongue
Assists mechanical processing
with teeth, sensory analysis

Salivary Glands
Secretion of lubricating fluid
containing enzymes that
break down carbohydrates

Liver
Secretion of bile (important
for lipid digestion), storage of
nutrients, many other vital
functions

Gallbladder
Storage and concentration of
bile

Pancreas
Exocrine cells secrete buffers
and digestive enzymes;
Endocrine cells secrete
hormones

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 24-1 The Digestive Tract 6 functions
Ingestion
Occurs when materials enter digestive tract via
the mouth
Mechanical Processing
Crushing and shearing
Makes materials easier to propel along digestive
tract
Digestion
The chemical breakdown of food into small
organic fragments for absorption by digestive
epithelium

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 24-1 The Digestive Tract 6 functions
Secretion
Is the release of water, acids, enzymes, buffers, and
salts by the digestive epithelium and glandular organs
Absorption
Movement of organic substrates, electrolytes,
vitamins, and water
Across digestive epithelium into the into interstitial
fluid of digestive tract
Excretion
Removal of waste products from body fluids
Process called defecation removes feces

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 24-1 The Digestive Tract

The Lining of the Digestive Tract

Safeguards surrounding tissues against:
1. Corrosive effects of digestive acids and enzymes
2. Mechanical stresses, such as abrasion
3. Bacteria either ingested with food or that reside in
digestive tract

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 24-1 The Digestive Tract
The Digestive Organs and the Peritoneum
Lined with serous membrane consisting of:
Superficial mesothelium covering a layer of areolar tissue
Serosa, or visceral peritoneum
Covers organs within peritoneal cavity
Parietal peritoneum
Lines inner surfaces of body wall
Kidneys, pancreas, duodenum, rectum & uterus are
retroperitoneal between the parietal peritoneum & body
wall
Peritoneal Fluid
Lubrication
Ascities excess fluid build up in peritoneal cavity

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Figure 24-2d Mesenteries.

Falciform Diaphragm
ligament

Lesser
omentum

Stomach
Pancreas
Transverse
Duodenum mesocolon

Transverse
Mesentery colon
proper
Greater
omentum
Sigmoid
mesocolon Parietal
peritoneum
Rectum
Small
Urinary intestine
bladder
Uterus

d A sagittal section showing the mesenteries of

an adult. Notice that the pancreas, duodenum,
and rectum are retroperitoneal.
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 24-1 The Digestive Tract
Mesenteries
Are double sheets of peritoneal membrane

Suspend portions of digestive tract within

peritoneal cavity by sheets of serous membrane
That connect parietal peritoneum
With visceral peritoneum

Stabilize positions of attached organs

Prevent intestines from becoming entangled
Passages for vessels, nerves, lymph, ducts, etc.

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 24-1 The Digestive Tract
Mesenteries
Lesser Omentum
Stabilizes position of stomach
Falciform Ligament
Helps stabilize position of liver
Dorsal Mesentery
Hangs from stomach & enlarges to form an
enormous pouch, called the greater omentum
Adipose tissue
Pads and protects
Insulation
Lipid energy storage
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 24-1 The Digestive Tract
Mesentery Proper
Is a thick mesenterial sheet
Provides stability
Permits some independent movement
Suspends most of small intestine & pancreas
Fuses with posterior abdominal wall, locking
structures in position
Mesocolon
Mesentery associated with most of the large
intestine
Fused to dorsal body wall & locks regions in place

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Figure 24-2b Mesenteries.

Transverse
mesocolon

Greater
Lesser
omentum (cut)
omentum
Mesocolon of
Transverse ascending and
colon descending
colons fused to
Ascending posterior portion
colon of the parietal
peritoneum
Mesentery
proper Descending
(mesenterial colon
sheet)
Small intestine

Sigmoid colon

b A diagrammatic view of the organization of

mesenteries in an adult. As the digestive tract enlarges,
mesenteries associated with the proximal portion of the
small intestine, the pancreas, and the ascending and
descending portions of the colon fuse to the body wall.
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Figure 24-3 The Structure of the Digestive Tract (Part 1 of 2).

Mesenteric
artery and vein
4 Layers of Digestive Tract

Circular
Mesentery folds

Mucosa

Submucosa

Muscularis
externa
Serosa
(visceral
peritoneum)
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Figure 24-3 The Structure of the Digestive Tract (Part 2 of 2).

Circular
fold
Mucosal
epithelium
Mucosa
Lamina
propria
Villi
Mucosal glands
Submucosal gland

Muscularis
mucosae
Lymphatic vessel
Mucosa
Artery and vein
Submucosa
Submucosal
plexus
Muscularis Circular muscle
externa layer
Serosa Myenteric plexus
(visceral
peritoneum) Longitudinal
muscle layer
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 24-1 The Digestive Tract
The Mucosa
Is the inner lining of digestive tract
Is a mucous membrane consisting of:
Epithelium: moistened by glandular secretions, does
the work of digestion & absorption
Simple or stratified depending on location & JOB

Lamina propria is areolar tissue deep to epithelium

containing: blood & lymphatic vessels, smooth muscle,
lymphatic tissue
Muscularis mucosae: smooth muscle & elastic
fibers
Inner layer encircles lumen (circular muscle)
Outer layer contains muscle cells parallel to tract
(longitudinal layer)
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 24-1 The Digestive Tract
The Digestive Epithelium
Oral cavity, pharynx, and esophagus
Mechanical stresses
Lined by stratified squamous epithelium

Stomach, small intestine, and most of large

intestine
Absorption
Simple columnar epithelium with mucous cells

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 24-1 The Digestive Tract
The Digestive Epithelium
Enteroendocrine cells: scattered among columnar
epithelial cells
Secrete hormones that:
Coordinate activities of the digestive tract and
accessory glands
Especially by duodenum

Lining of Digestive Tract

Folding increases surface area for absorption
Longitudinal folds, disappear as digestive tract fills
Permanent transverse folds (plicae circulares)

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 24-1 The Digestive Tract
The Submucosa
Is a layer of dense irregular connective tissue
Has large blood vessels and lymphatic vessels
May contain exocrine glands
Secrete buffers and enzymes into digestive tract

Submucosal Plexus (Meissners plexus)

Innervates the mucosa and submucosa
Sensory neurons
Parasympathetic ganglionic neurons
Sympathetic postganglionic fibers

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 24-1 The Digestive Tract
The Muscularis Externa
Is dominated by smooth muscle cells
Inner circular layer
Outer longitudinal layer
Involved in:
Mechanical processing
Movement of materials along digestive tract
Movements coordinated by enteric nervous
system (ENS) : sensory, inter- and motor neurons
Parasympathetic innervation: MAJOR innervation
Sympathetic postganglionic fibers
myenteric plexus (Auerbachs plexus)

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 24-1 The Digestive Tract

The Serosa
Serous membrane covering muscularis externa
Except in oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, and
rectum
Where adventitia, a dense sheath of collagen
fibers, firmly attaches the digestive tract to adjacent
structures

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 24-1 The Digestive Tract
The Movement of Digestive Materials
By muscular layers of digestive tract
Consist of visceral smooth muscle tissue
Along digestive tract
Has rhythmic cycles of activity
Controlled by pacesetter cells
Located in muscularis mucosae and muscularis
externa

Cells undergo spontaneous depolarization

Triggering wave of contraction through entire
muscular sheet
Movement of bolus = peristalsis
Mechanical processing = segmentation
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Figure 24-4 Peristalsis.

Initial State bolus

Peristalsis: Longitudinal
muscle

coordinated Circular
muscle From
mouth
To
anus

movement of a
bolus along the
1
GI tract Contraction of circular muscles behind bolus

Contraction

2 Contraction of longitudinal muscles ahead of bolus

Contraction

Contraction

3 Contraction in circular muscle layer forces

bolus forward

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 24-1 The Digestive Tract
Peristalsis
Consists of waves of muscular contractions
Moves a bolus along the length of the digestive
tract
Peristaltic Motion
1. Circular muscles contract behind bolus
While circular muscles ahead of bolus relax
2. Longitudinal muscles ahead of bolus contract
Shortening adjacent segments
3. Wave of contraction in circular muscles
Forces bolus forward

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 24-1 The Digestive Tract
Segmentation
Cycles of contraction
Churn and fragment the bolus
Mix contents with intestinal secretions
Does not follow a set pattern
Does not push materials in any one direction

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 24-1 The Digestive Tract

Control of Digestive Functions

Local Factors: only a portion of the tract
Prostaglandins, histamine, and other chemicals
released into interstitial fluid
May affect adjacent cells within small segment of
digestive tract
Histamine secretion of acid

Coordinate response to changing conditions

For example, variations in local pH, chemical, or
physical stimuli
Stretch local contraction

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 24-1 The Digestive Tract
Control of Digestive Functions
Neural Mechanisms
Control
Movement of materials along digestive tract
Secretory functions
Motor neurons
Control smooth muscle contraction and glandular
secretion
Located in myenteric plexus

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 24-1 The Digestive Tract
Neural Mechanisms
Short reflexes: NO CNS CONTROL
Are responsible for local reflexes
Control small segments of digestive tract
Operate entirely outside of CNS control
Trigger by stretch or chemoreceptors

Long reflexes: CNS INVOLVEMENT

Higher level control of digestive and glandular
activities
Control large-scale peristaltic waves
Parasympathetic motor fibers major innervation
Glossopharyngeal, vagus, or pelvic nerves
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 24-1 The Digestive Tract
Hormonal Mechanisms
At least 18 peptide hormones that affect:
Most aspects of digestive function
Activities of other systems
Are produced by enteroendocrine cells in
digestive tract
Reach target organs after distribution in
bloodstream

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Figure 24-5 The Regulation of Digestive Activities.
2
Neural Control Mechanisms

The movement of materials along the digestive tract, as well as many secretory
functions, is primarily controlled by local factors. Short reflexes are triggered
CNS by chemoreceptors or stretch receptors in the walls of the digestive tract; the
Long
controlling neurons are located in the myenteric plexus. These reflexes are
reflex
often called myenteric reflexes. Long reflexes involving
interneurons and motor neurons in the CNS provide a higher
Myenteric level of control over digestive and glandular activities, generally
plexus controlling large-scale peristalsis that
Short moves materials from one region of the
reflex digestive tract to another. Long reflexes
Peristalsis and may involve parasympathetic motor fibers
Stretch receptors, segmentation in the glossopharyngeal (N IX), vagus
chemoreceptors movements (N X), or pelvic nerves that synapse in
the myenteric plexus.

Buffers, acids, Secretory

3
enzymes released cells
Hormonal Control Mechanisms

The digestive tract produces

1 at least 18 hormones that
Local Factors
affect almost every aspect of
Local factors are the primary stimulus digestion, and some of them
for digestion. They coordinate the also affect the activities of
responses to changes in the pH of the Carried by other systems. These
Enteroendocrine bloodstream hormones are peptides
contents of the lumen, physical
distortion of the wall of the digestive
cells produced by enteroendocrine
tract, or the presence of chemicals cells, endocrine cells in the
either specific nutrients or chemical epithelium of the digestive
Hormones tract. We will consider these
messengers released by cells of released
the mucosa. hormones as we proceed down
the length of the digestive tract.

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 24-2 The Oral Cavity
Functions of the Oral Cavity / Buccal Cavity
1. Sensory analysis
Of material before swallowing
2. Mechanical processing
Through actions of teeth, tongue, and
palatal surfaces
3. Lubrication
Mixing with mucus and salivary gland
secretions
4. Limited digestion
Of carbohydrates and lipids
BUT NO absorption of nutrients, underside
of tongue can absorb lipid soluble drugs
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 24-2 The Oral Cavity
Oral Mucosa - lining of oral cavity
Has stratified squamous epithelium
Labia - lips
Keep food in mouth while chewing / articulation
Cheeks lateral walls of the oral cavity
Vestibule
Space between the cheeks (or lips) and the teeth
Gingivae (Gums)
Ridges of oral mucosa - Surround base of each
tooth on alveolar processes of maxillary bones
and mandible
Hard & Soft Palate roof
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Figure 24-6a The Oral Cavity.

Hard palate Soft palate

Palatoglossal Nasal cavity
arch Pharyngeal tonsil

Opening of Entrance to
parotid duct auditory tube

Upper lip Nasopharynx

Cheek Uvula
Dorsum of tongue Palatine tonsil
Lower lip Fauces
Gingiva Palatopharyngeal
arch
Vestibule Oropharynx
Body of Lingual tonsil
tongue
Epiglottis
Root of
Hyoid bone
tongue
Laryngopharynx
a A sagittal section of the oral cavity

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 24-2 The Oral Cavity
The Tongue: manipulates materials inside mouth
1. Mechanical processing by compression, abrasion,
and distortion
2. Manipulation to assist in chewing and to prepare
material for swallowing
3. Sensory analysis by touch, temperature, and taste
receptors
4. Secretion of mucins and the enzyme lingual lipase

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 24-2 The Oral Cavity

Salivary Glands 1-1.5 liter/day

Three pairs secrete into oral cavity
Parotid salivary glands (25% of saliva): salivary
amylase (breaks down starches)

Sublingual salivary glands (5% of saliva):

produce mucous secretion that acts as a buffer and
lubricant

Submandibular salivary glands (70% of saliva):

secrete buffers, glycoproteins (mucins), and
salivary amylase
Need buffers because enzymes needed for
digestion work best at a preset pH!!

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Figure 24-7a The Salivary Glands.

Parotid duct

Openings of
Salivary
sublingual Glands
ducts
Parotid salivary
Lingual gland
frenulum
Sublingual
salivary gland
Opening of left
Submandibular
submandibular
salivary gland
duct

Submandibular
duct

a A lateral view, showing the relative positions of

the salivary glands and ducts on the left side of the
head. For clarity, the left ramus and body of the
mandible have been removed. For the positions of
the parotid and submandibular ducts in the oral
cavity, see Figure 246.
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 24-2 The Oral Cavity
Functions of Saliva
Lubricating the mouth
Moistening and lubricating materials in the mouth
Dissolving chemicals that stimulate taste buds and
provide sensory information
Initiating digestion of complex carbohydrates by
the enzyme salivary amylase (ptyalin or alpha-
amylase)
99.4% water + electrolytes (Na+, Cl-, HCO3-),
buffers, mucins (glycoproteins), IGA, enzyme,
waste products

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 24-2 The Oral Cavity
Control of Salivary Secretions
By autonomic nervous system
Parasympathetic and sympathetic innervation
Parasympathetic accelerates secretion by all
salivary glands
Salivary reflex: put an object into the mouth and
salivation begins

Sight / smell / anticipation of food stimulates

salivation

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 The Teeth
Tongue movements pass food across occlusal
surfaces of teeth
Chew (masticate) food teeth, cheeks & tongue
Food moves from the oral cavity across the
occlusal surfaces of the teeth to the vestibule and
then back.

Dental Succession
During embryonic development, two sets of teeth
form
Primary dentition, or deciduous teeth
Secondary dentition, or permanent dentition
32 permanent teeth, 8/ side upper & lower jaw
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Figure 24-9c Primary and Secondary Dentitions.

Maxilla exposed to
show developing
permanent teeth

Erupted
deciduous teeth

First and second

molars

Mandible exposed
to show developing
permanent teeth
c Maxilla and mandible with unerupted
teeth exposed

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Figure 24-8a Teeth.

Enamel Calcium
phosphate
Dentin
Crown
Pulp cavity

Gingiva (gums)

Neck Gingival
sulcus

Cementum

Periodontal
ligament
Root Root canal

Alveolar
process

Apical foramen

Branches of alveolar
a vessels and nerve
A diagrammatic section through
a typical adult tooth.
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Figure 24-8b Teeth.
Conical, pointed tip Very large, flat crowns
Tearing, slashing Prominent ridges
Blade-shaped 1 root Flattened crowns Crushing and grinding
Clipping or cutting Prominent ridges 3-4 roots
1 root Crush, mash, grind
1 - 2 roots
Incisors Cuspids Bicuspids Molars
(canines) (premolars)

Upper
jaw

Lower
jaw

b The adult teeth from the right side of the

upper and lower jaws teeth are classified by
occlusal surfaces, use, number of roots. 32 adult
teeth total, (many have the last 4 molars extracted =
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Figure 24-6b The Oral Cavity.

Hard palate

Soft palate

Fauces
Uvula
Palatoglossal
arch

Palatopharyngeal
arch
Palatine
tonsil
Lingual
frenulum
Gingiva

Vestibule

Frenulum
of lower lip
Openings of
submandibular ducts

b An anterior view of the oral cavity

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 24-3 The Pharynx
The Pharynx (Throat) : food, liquids, air
Food passes through the oropharynx and
laryngopharynx to the esophagus
The Esophagus
A hollow muscular tube that conveys solid food
and liquids to the stomach
Enters abdominopelvic cavity via esphogeal hiatus
Parasympathetic & sympathetic innervation
Upper esophageal sphincter resting tone
prevents air from entering
Lower esophageal sphincter prevents reflux of
stomach contents

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Figure 24-10a The Esophagus.

Muscularis
mucosae

Mucosa

Submucosa

Muscularis
externa

Adventitia

a A transverse section through an empty

esophagus (LM 5).
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 24-4 The Esophagus

Histology of the Esophagus

Mucosa: stratified squamous epithelium

Submucosa contains esophageal glands

Which produce mucous secretion
Reduces friction between bolus and
esophageal lining

Muscularis externa has:

Usual inner circular and outer longitudinal
layers
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 24-4 The Esophagus

Swallowing
Also called deglutition
Can be initiated voluntarily
Proceeds automatically

Is divided into three phases

1. Buccal phase
2. Pharyngeal phase
3. Esophageal phase

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Figure 24-11 The Swallowing Process.

1 Buccal Phase The buccal phase begins with

the compression of the bolus

Soft palate
against the hard palate.
Subsequent retraction of the
tongue then forces the bolus
Voluntary
Bolus into the oropharynx and assists
in the elevation of the soft
Epiglottis palate, thereby sealing off the
nasopharynx. Once the bolus
enters the oropharynx, reflex
Esophagus Trachea responses begin and the bolus
is moved toward the stomach.

2 Pharyngeal Phase
The pharyngeal phase Involuntary
begins as the bolus comes into
contact with the palatoglossal
and palatopharyngeal arches
Tongue and the posterior pharyngeal
wall. Elevation of the larynx
and folding of the epiglottis
Bolus direct the bolus past the closed
glottis. At the same time, the
uvula and soft palate block
passage back to the
nasopharynx.

3 Esophageal Phase
The esophageal phase
begins as the contraction of
pharyngeal muscles forces the
bolus through the entrance to
the esophagus. Once in the
esophagus, the bolus is
pushed toward the stomach
Peristalsis in by peristalsis.
esophagus Trachea

4 Bolus Enters Stomach

The approach of the bolus
triggers the opening of the
lower esophageal sphincter.
Thoracic The bolus then continues
cavity into the stomach.

Lower
esophageal
sphincter
Stomach

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 24-5 The Stomach

Major Functions of the Stomach

1. Storage of ingested food
2. Mechanical breakdown of ingested food
3. Disruption of chemical bonds in food material by
acid and enzymes
4. Destroy ingested pathogens on food
5. Production of intrinsic factor, a glycoprotein
required for absorption of vitamin B12 in small
intestine

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 24-5 The Stomach
Digestion and Absorption in the Stomach
Stomach contents: chyme
Become more fluid
pH approaches 2.0 (hydrochloric acid, HCl)
Pepsin activity increases
Protein disassembly begins
Although digestion occurs in the stomach,
nutrients are not absorbed there
Stomach performs preliminary digestion of
proteins by pepsin

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Figure 24-12a The Stomach.

Esophagus
Diaphragm

Left gastric
artery
Liver, Liver,
right lobe left lobe Vagus
Lesser curvature nerve (N X)
Fundus
Common
hepatic artery Cardia

Gallbladder Spleen
Body
Bile duct Greater
curvature
with greater
Pyloric sphincter omentum
attached
Pylorus
Greater
omentum

a The position and external appearance of the stomach, showing superficial landmarks

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Figure 24-12b The Stomach.

Bolus enters

Esophagus Fundus

Cardia

Longitudinal
muscle layer
Left gastroepiploic
Circular vessels
muscle layer
Body
Lesser curvature
Pyloric
(medial surface)
sphincter Oblique muscle layer
overlying mucosa
Duodenum
Rugae!!!!!!!

Chyme leaves Greater curvature

(lateral surface)
Pyloric canal
Pylorus
Pyloric antrum b The structure of the stomach wall

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 Histology of the Stomach
Simple columnar epithelium
lines all portions of stomach
Epithelium is a secretory sheet
Produces mucus that covers interior surface of
stomach

Gastric pits, shallow depressions that open onto

the gastric surface
Parietal cells: HCl, intrinsic factor
Chief cells secrete pepsinogen
Pepsinogen + HCl PEPSIN (active form)

Mucous cells, at the base, or neck, of each gastric

pit, actively divide, replacing superficial cells
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Figure 24-13a The Stomach Lining.

Layers of the Stomach Wall

Mucosa

Gastric pit (opening

to gastric gland)
Mucous epithelium

Lamina propria
Muscularis mucosae

Submucosa Artery
and
Muscularis externa
vein
Oblique muscle

Circular muscle
Lymphatic
vessel
Longitudinal muscle
Myenteric
Serosa plexus
a Stomach wall
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 Gastric glands in fundus
ng.

& body of stomach

Lamina
propria
Gastric Mucous
pit cells
Neck

Cells of
Gastric
Glands
Parietal intrinsic factor to absorb B12 &
cells hydrochloric acid (HCl)

Gastric
gland G cell Gastrin stimulates secretion of
pepsinogen, HCl + mixing
Chief pepsinogen: converted to pepsin by
cells HCl, starts to digest proteins

Smooth
muscle D cell: somatostatin that inhibits
cell
b
gastrin secretion & stomach
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Figure 24-14 The Secretion of Hydrochloric Acid.

Hydrochloric acid is secreted in 2 parts to

prevent destruction of parietal cell
KEY

1 Diffusion
Hydrogen ions (H+) are generated
inside a parietal cell as the enzyme Parietal cell Carrier-mediated
carbonic anhydrase converts CO2 transport
and H2O to carbonic acid (H2CO3), CO2 + H2O Active transport
which then dissociates.
Carbonic Countertransport
anhydrase
2 4
A countertransport mechanism The hydrogen ions are
ejects the bicarbonate ions into H2CO3 actively transported into the
the interstitial fluid and imports lumen of the gastric gland.
chloride ions into the cell.

HCO3 HCO3 + H+ H+
Interstitial
fluid Cl Cl Cl
3
Alkaline
tide The chloride ions then diffuse
across the cell and exit through Lumen of
open chloride channels into the gastric
Enters lumen of the gastric gland. gland
bloodstream

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 Functions of HCl: pH of stomach ~2

Kill microorganisms
Denatures proteins and inactivates
enzymes in food
Break down plant cell walls and
connective tissue in meat
Activates pepsinogen pepsin
Active pepsin is proteolytic

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 Why doesnt the stomach absorb nutrients?

Protein digestion incomplete

Lack enzymes to digest carbohydrates and
triglycerides
Epithelial cells lack specialized transport
mechanisms
Epithelial cells are covered with thick coating
of mucus
Digestion is not completed before chyme
leaves the stomach
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 24-5 The Stomach
Regulation of Gastric Activity
Production of acid and enzymes by the gastric
mucosa can be:
Controlled by the CNS
Regulated by short reflexes of ENS
Regulated by hormones of digestive tract

Three phases of gastric control

1. Cephalic phase
2. Gastric phase
3. Intestinal phase

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Figure 24-15 Regulation of Gastric Activity (Part 3 of 6).

1 CEPHALIC PHASE

Sight, smell, taste,

or thoughts of food

Central nervous system

Vagus nerve (N X)

Submucosal
plexus

Mucous Mucus
cells
Chief Pepsinogen
cells
Parietal HCl
Gastrin cells
G cells
KEY
Stimulation
Stimulation

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Figure 24-15 Regulation of Gastric Activity (Part 4 of 6).

2
GASTRIC PHASE

Neural Response

Submucosal and Distension Stretch

myenteric plexuses receptors
Elevated pH Chemoreceptors
carried by Mucous
Mucus
bloodstream cells
Chief
Pepsinogen
cells Mixing
Parietal waves
Gastrin HCl
cells

G cells Partly
digested KEY
peptides Stimulation
Stimulation

ATLAS: Plate 50c

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Figure 24-15 Regulation of Gastric Activity (Part 5 of 6).

3
INTESTINAL PHASE

Neural Responses

Enterogastric Myenteric
reflex plexus

carried by bloodstream Chief

cells
Parietal
Duodenal cells
stretch and Peristalsis
chemoreceptors

CCK Presence of
lipids and
GIP carbohydrates
KEY
Inhibition
Secretin Decreased pH

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Figure 24-12a The Stomach.

Esophagus
Diaphragm

Left gastric
artery
Liver, Liver,
right lobe left lobe Vagus
Lesser curvature nerve (N X)
Fundus
Common
hepatic artery Cardia

Gallbladder Spleen
Body
Bile duct Greater
curvature
with greater
Pyloric sphincter omentum
attached
Pylorus
Greater
omentum

a The position and external appearance of the stomach, showing superficial landmarks

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Figure 24-16a Segments of the Intestine.

Segments of the
Small Intestine
Duodenum

Jejunum

Ileum

Large
intestine

Rectum

a The positions of the duodenum,

jejunum, and ileum in the
abdominopelvic cavity
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 24-6 The Small Intestine
The Small Intestine
Plays key role in digestion and absorption of nutrients
90 percent of nutrient absorption occurs in the small
intestine

The Duodenum
The segment of small intestine closest to stomach
Mixing bowl that receives chyme from stomach and
digestive secretions from pancreas and liver
Functions of the duodenum:
To receive chyme
To neutralize acids
Produce copious amounts of mucus
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 24-6 The Small Intestine
The Jejunum
Is the middle segment of small intestine
Is the location of most:
Chemical digestion
Nutrient absorption

The Ileum
The final segment of small intestine
Ends at the ileocecal valve (opens when we eat)
put more stuff into intestines move the other
stuff out
A sphincter that controls flow of material from the
ileum into the cecum of the large intestine
Cecum: leftover pouch
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 24-6 The Small Intestine
Histology of the Small Intestine features to
increase surface area and contact between
chyme and intestinal epithelial

Circular folds (plicae circulares)

Transverse folds in intestinal lining
Are permanent features
Do not disappear when small intestine fills

Intestinal villi
A series of fingerlike projections in mucosa of small
intestine
Covered by simple columnar epithelium
Covered with microvilli
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Figure 24-16b Segments of the Intestine.

Circular
folds

Gross anatomy of the jejunum

b A representative view of
the jejunum
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Figure 24-17b The Intestinal Wall.

Lymphoid Lacteal
Villi Intestinal nodule
Covered with microvilli crypt
Makes villi look furry

Layers of the
Small Intestine
Submucosal
artery and vein
Mucosa
Lymphatic
vessel
Muscularis
mucosae Submucosal
plexus
Submucosa
Circular layer
of smooth
muscle
Muscularis
externa Myenteric
plexus
Serosa Longitudinal layer
of smooth muscle

b The organization of the intestinal wall

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 Figure 24-17d The Intestinal Wall.

Lacteal
Columnar
epithelial cell
Mucous cell
Lacteal Capillaries

Nerve

Capillary Mucous cells

network
Lamina
propria

Lacteal
Lymphatic
vessel
Brush border =
microvilli
Smooth Tip of villus LM 250
muscle
cell d A villus in sectional view
Arteriole Venule
c Internal structures in a single villus, showing
the capillary and lymphatic supplies
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 24-6 The Small Intestine
Histology of the Small Intestine
Intestinal glands (Crypts of Lieberkhn)
Mucous cells between columnar epithelial cells
Base of gland active cell division displace to
villi at tip shed into lumen
Release cellular and apical enzymes into the
lumen to help with digestion
Intestinal Glands
Brush border enzymes
Integral membrane proteins
On surfaces of intestinal microvilli
Break down materials in contact with brush border
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 24-6 The Small Intestine
Intestinal Glands
Enteropeptidase
A brush border enzyme
Activates pancreatic proenzyme trypsinogen
Enteroendocrine cells
Produce intestinal hormones such as gastrin,
cholecystokinin, and secretin
Duodenal glands
Also called submucosal glands or Brunners glands
Produce copious quantities of mucus
When chyme arrives from stomach

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 24-6 The Small Intestine
Intestinal Secretions
Watery intestinal juice
1.8 liters per day enter intestinal lumen
Moisten chyme
Assist in buffering acids
Keep digestive enzymes and products of
digestion in solution

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 Absorption in the Small Intestine

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 24-6 The Small Intestine

Intestinal Movements
Chyme arrives in duodenum
Weak peristaltic contractions move it slowly
toward jejunum

Myenteric reflexes muscles between

longitudinal and circular layer
Not under CNS control
Parasympathetic stimulation accelerates local
peristalsis and segmentation rest & digest

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Figure 24-15 Regulation of Gastric Activity (Part 6 of 6).

CENTRAL REFLEXES
respond to stretch or
presence of chyme

Central Gastric
Reflexes

The gastroenteric
reflex stimulates
motility and
secretion along the
entire small intestine.

The gastroileal
(gas-tr-IL--al) reflex
triggers the opening
of the ileocecal valve,
allowing materials to
pass from the small The ileocecal valve
controls the passage of
intestine into the large
materials into the large
intestine. intestine.
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Figure 24-18a The Pancreas.

Exocrine: 99%
Endocrine: 1%

Common Pancreatic Lobules

bile duct duct Tail of
pancreas

Accessory Body of
pancreatic pancreas
duct

Head of
Duodenal pancreas
papilla

Duodenum

a The gross anatomy of the pancreas. The head of the

pancreas is tucked in to a C-shaped curve of the
duodenum that begins at the pylorus of the stomach.
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Figure 24-18b The Pancreas.

Pancreatic duct

Connective tissue septum

Exocrine cells in
pancreatic acini

Endocrine cells in
pancreatic islet

b Diagram of the cellular

organization of the pancreas.

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 24-6 The Pancreas
Functions of the Pancreas
Endocrine cells of the pancreatic islets
Secrete insulin and glucagon into bloodstream

Exocrine cells
Acinar cells and epithelial cells of duct system
secrete pancreatic juice into duodenum at the
duodenal ampulla with common bile duct

Controlled by the duodenum

Enzymes, bicarbonate and phosphate

alkaline buffers (pH 7.5-8.8), water

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 24-6 The Pancreas

Pancreatic Alpha-Amylase
A carbohydrase
Breaks down starches

Pancreatic Lipase
Breaks down complex lipids
Releases products (e.g., fatty acids) that are
easily absorbed

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 Nucleases
Break down nucleic acids

Proteolytic Enzymes
Break certain proteins apart
Proteases break large protein complexes
Peptidases break small peptides into amino acids
70 percent of all pancreatic enzyme production
Secreted as inactive proenzymes
Trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen, proelastase,
procarboxypeptidase
Activated after reaching small intestine

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Figure 24-19b The Anatomy of the Liver.

The Liver
Is the largest visceral organ (1.5 kg; 3.3 lb)
Performs more than 200 essential metabolic and
synthetic functions
Coronary ligament

Falciform
ligament
Round ligament
Gallbladder

b The anterior surface of the liver

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Figure 24-19c The Anatomy of the Liver.

Coronary
Left hepatic vein ligament

Inferior vena cava

Caudate lobe

Porta Hepatis
2/3 Hepatic portal vein
1/3 Hepatic artery proper
Common bile duct

Quadrate lobe
Gallbladder

c The posterior surface of the liver

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 Hepatic portal system: intestinal capillaries to
portal vein to hepatic capillaries to hepatic vein

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 Liver lobules
The basic functional units of the liver
Each lobe is divided by connective tissue
About 100,000 liver lobules
1 mm diameter each
Hexagonal in cross section
Sinusoids lead to central vein
No basement membrane so even plasma
proteins can pass in and out
With six portal areas (portal triads)
One at each corner of lobule
Bile duct, portal vein, hepatic artery proper
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Figure 24-20a Liver Histology.

1 mm

Interlobular Bile Branch of Bile

septum duct hepatic portal vein Portal area ductules

a A diagrammatic view of liver structure, showing relationships among lobules

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Figure 24-20b Liver Histology.

Sinusoid
Central
vein
Hepatocytes

Kupffer
cells

Bile
canaliculi
Portal Area

Bile duct

Branch of hepatic
portal vein
Branch of hepatic
artery proper
b A single liver lobule and its cellular
components
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 The Physiology of the Liver
1. Metabolic regulation
2. Hematological regulation
3. Bile production

Metabolic Regulation
The liver regulates:
1. Composition of circulating blood
2. Nutrient metabolism
3. Waste product removal- old antibodies
4. Nutrient storage
5. Drug inactivation
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 Composition of Circulating Blood
All blood leaving absorptive surfaces of
digestive tract
Enters hepatic portal system
Flows into the liver and flows slowly through the
sinusoids towards the central vein
Kupffer cells- macrophages remove debris &
present antigens

Liver cells extract nutrients or toxins from blood

Before they reach systemic circulation through
hepatic veins

Liver removes and stores excess nutrients

Corrects nutrient deficiencies by mobilizing stored
reserves or performing synthetic activities
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 24-6 The Liver
Metabolic Activities of the Liver
Carbohydrate metabolism
Lipid metabolism
Amino acid metabolism
Waste product removal
Vitamin storage
Mineral storage: iron stored as ferritin
Drug inactivation

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 24-6 The Liver
Hematological Regulation
Largest blood reservoir in the body
Receives 25 percent of cardiac output

Functions of Hematological Regulation

Phagocytosis and antigen presentation
Synthesis of plasma proteins
Removal of circulating hormones
Removal of antibodies
Removal or storage of toxins
Synthesis and secretion of bile

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 24-6 The Liver
The Functions of Bile
Dietary lipids are not water soluble
Mechanical processing in stomach creates large
drops containing lipids
Pancreatic lipase is not lipid soluble
Interacts only at surface of lipid droplet
Bile salts break droplets apart (emulsification)
Increases surface area exposed to enzymatic
attack smaller droplets = increased surface area
Creates tiny emulsion droplets coated with bile
salts

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 24-6 The Liver
Right and Left Hepatic Ducts
Collect bile from all bile ducts of liver lobes
Unite to form common hepatic duct that leaves
the liver

Bile Flow
From common hepatic duct to either:
The common bile duct, which empties into
duodenal ampulla
The cystic duct, which leads to gallbladder

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Figure 24-21c The Anatomy and Physiology of the Gallbladder and Bile Ducts.

Left hepatic duct

Right hepatic duct
Common
hepatic duct

Gallbladder
Neck

Body
Fundus

Duodenum
Common
bile duct
c A radiograph (cholangiogram, anterior-posterior view) of
the gallbladder, biliary ducts, and pancreatic ducts.

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Figure 24-21d The Anatomy and Physiology of the Gallbladder and Bile Ducts.

1
The liver
secretes bile
continuously
2
about 1
Bile becomes more
liter per day.
concentrated the
longer it remains in
the gallbladder.
Liver

Duodenum 3
CCK The release of CCK by the
4 duodenum triggers dilation
In the lumen of of the hepatopancreatic
the digestive tract, sphincter and contraction
Lipid
bile salts break of the gallbladder. This ejects
droplet
the lipid droplets bile into the duodenum
apart by emulsification. through the duodenal ampulla.

d Physiology of the gallbladder.

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 24-6 The Gallbladder

The Gallbladder
Is a hollow, pear-shaped, muscular sac
Stores and concentrates bile prior to
excretion into small intestine
Is located in the fossa on the posterior surface
of the livers right lobe
Releases bile into duodenum by hormone
cholecystokinin (CCK) from duodenum

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Figure 24-21a The Anatomy and Physiology of the Gallbladder and Bile Ducts.

Round ligament Left hepatic duct

Right hepatic duct
Left hepatic artery
Cystic duct

Gallbladder Common hepatic

duct
Fundus Cut edge of lesser
Body omentum

Neck Common bile duct

Hepatic portal vein

Common hepatic
artery

Right gastric artery

a A view of the inferior surface of

the liver, showing the position
of the gallbladder and ducts that
transport bile from the liver to
the gallbladder and duodenum.
A portion of the lesser omentum
has been cut away.

Hepatoduodenum spinchter
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 24-6 Coordination of Secretion and
Absorption
Intestinal Absorption
It takes about five hours for materials
to pass from duodenum to end of ileum
Most chemical digestion & absorption of
nutrients takes place
Movements of the mucosa increase
absorptive effectiveness
Stir and mix intestinal contents
Constantly change environment around epithelial
cells

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 24-6 Coordination of Secretion and
Absorption
Neural and Hormonal Mechanisms
Coordinate activities of digestive glands
Regulatory mechanisms center around duodenum
Where acids are neutralized and enzymes added

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 24-6 Coordination of Secretion and
Absorption
Neural Mechanisms of the CNS
Prepare digestive tract for activity (parasympathetic
innervation)
Inhibit gastrointestinal activity (sympathetic
innervation)
Coordinate movement of materials along digestive tract
(the enterogastric, gastroenteric, and gastroileal
reflexes)
Motor neuron synapses in digestive tract release
neurotransmitters

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 Enteroendocrine: Duodenum
Gastrin
Is secreted by G cells in duodenum
When exposed to incompletely digested
proteins
Promotes increased stomach motility
Stimulates acids and enzyme production
Also secreted by the stomach

Secretin
Is released when chyme arrives in duodenum
Increases secretion of bile and buffers by liver
and pancreas
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 Enteroendocrine: Duodenum
Gastric Inhibitory Peptide (GIP)
Is secreted when fats and carbohydrates enter
small intestine
Cholecystokinin (CCK)
Is secreted in duodenum
When chyme contains lipids and partially digested
proteins
Accelerates pancreatic production and secretion
of digestive enzymes
Relaxes hepatopancreatic sphincter and
gallbladder
Ejecting bile and pancreatic juice into
duodenum
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 Enteroendocrine: Duodenum
Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide (VIP)
Stimulates secretion of intestinal glands
Dilates regional capillaries
Inhibits acid production in stomach

Enterocrinin
Is released when chyme enters small intestine
Stimulates mucin production by submucosal
glands of duodenum protect epithelium

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Figure 24-23 The Functions of Major Digestive Tract Hormones.
Ingested food
Hormones of the stomach & duodenum
Hormone Action

Food in
stomach

Acid production by KEY

stimulates
parietal cells
inhibits
Gastrin
Stimulation of gastric
motility; mixing waves
increase in intensity

Release of insulin
GIP from pancreas

Release of pancreatic
enzymes and buffers
Chyme in
duodenum Secretin
and CCK
Bile secretion and
ejection of bile
from gallbladder
facilitates

Dilation of intestinal
VIP capillaries

facilitates

NUTRIENT
Material Nutrient absorption UTILIZATION
arrives in BY ALL TISSUES
jejunum

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 24-7 The Large Intestine
The Large Intestine
Is horseshoe shaped
Extends from end of ileum to anus
Lies inferior to stomach and liver
Frames the small intestine
Also called large bowel
Is about 1.5 meters (4.9 ft) long and 7.5 cm (3
in.) wide

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 24-7 The Large Intestine
Functions of the Large Intestine
Reabsorption of water
Compaction of intestinal contents into feces
and storage until defectaion
Absorption of important vitamins produced by
bacteria
Less than 10% of nutrient absorption

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 24-7 The Large Intestine
The Cecum
Is an expanded pouch
Receives material arriving from the ileum
Stores materials and begins compaction

Appendix
Also called vermiform appendix
Blind pouch: 9 cm (3.6 in.) long
Is dominated by lymphoid nodules (a
lymphoid organ)

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 24-7 The Large Intestine
The Colon
Largest segment
Has a larger diameter and thinner wall than
small intestine
The wall of the colon
Forms a series of pouches (haustra)
Haustra permit expansion and elongation
of colon

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 24-7 The Large Intestine
Colon Muscles
Three longitudinal bands of smooth muscle
(taeniae coli)
Run along outer surfaces of colon
Deep to the serosa
Similar to outer layer of muscularis externa
Muscle tone in taeniae coli creates the
haustra

Serosa of the Colon

Contains numerous teardrop-shaped sacs of fat -
Fatty appendices or epiploic appendages
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Figure 24-24a The Large Intestine.
Aorta Splenic vein
Hepatic portal vein Superior mesenteric artery
Right colic Superior Inferior mesenteric vein
(hepatic) mesenteric vein
flexure Inferior vena cava
Left colic
(splenic)
flexure

Greater
omentum (cut)

Transverse
colon
2 Descending
colon 3
Left colic vein
Middle colic
artery and vein
Inferior
Right colic mesenteric
artery and vein artery

Left colic artery

1 Ascending colon
Haustra
Omental appendices Intestinal arteries
and veins

Rectal
Ileocecal valve
artery
Sigmoid arteries
Cecum
and veins
Appendix Teniae coli
Sigmoid flexure

a The gross anatomy

Sigmoid colon
4
and regions of the
Four Regions large intestine

of the Colon
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 Ascending Colon
Begins at superior border of cecum
Ascends along right lateral and posterior wall of
peritoneal cavity
bends at right colic flexure (hepatic flexure)

Transverse Colon
Crosses abdomen from right to left; turns at left
colic flexure (splenic flexure)
Is supported by transverse mesocolon
Is separated from anterior abdominal wall by
greater omentum
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 Descending Colon
Proceeds inferiorly along left side to the iliac
fossa (inner surface of left ilium)
Is retroperitoneal, firmly attached to
abdominal wall

Sigmoid Colon
Is an S-shaped segment, about 15 cm (6 in.)
long
Starts at sigmoid flexure
Lies posterior to urinary bladder
Is suspended from sigmoid mesocolon
Empties into rectum
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 The Rectum
Forms last 15 cm (6 in.) of digestive tract
Is an expandable organ for temporary
storage of feces
Movement of fecal material into rectum
triggers urge to defecate

The Anal Canal

Is the last portion of the rectum

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 Anus
Also called anal orifice
Is exit of the anal canal
Has keratinized epidermis like skin
2 Anal Sphincters
Internal anal sphincter
Circular muscle layer of muscularis externa
Has smooth muscle cells, not under
voluntary control
External anal sphincter
Encircles distal portion of anal canal
A ring of skeletal muscle fibers, under
voluntary control
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Figure 24-24c The Large Intestine.

Anal canal
Anal columns

Internal anal
sphincter
External anal
sphincter

Anus

c The rectum and anus

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 Histology of the Large Intestine
Lacks villi
Abundance of mucous cells
Presence of distinctive intestinal glands
Are deeper than glands of small intestine
Are dominated by mucous cells
Does not produce enzymes
Provides lubrication for fecal material
Large lymphoid nodules are scattered
throughout the lamina propria and submucosa
The longitudinal layer of the muscularis
externa is reduced to the muscular bands of
taeniae coli
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Figure 24-25a The Mucosa and Glands of the Colon.

Teniae coli
Omental appendices

Haustrum

Aggregated Simple
lymphoid columnar
nodule epithelium
Layers of the
Large Intestine Mucous
cells
Mucosa
Intestinal
crypt
Muscularis
Muscularis
mucosae
mucosae
Submucosa
Submucosa
Muscularis
externa
Circular layer
Longitudinal layer
(teniae coli)
Serosa
a Diagrammatic view of the
colon wall
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 Small Intestine Large Intestine

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 24-7 The Large Intestine
Physiology of the Large Intestine
Less than 10 percent of nutrient absorption
occurs in large intestine
Prepares fecal material for ejection from the
body
Feces:
75% water
5% bacteria
Indigestable material
& epithelial cells

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 24-7 The Large Intestine
Absorption in the Large Intestine
Reabsorption of water down osmotic gradients
Reabsorption of bile salts
In the cecum
Transported in blood to liver

Absorption of vitamins produced by bacteria

organic molecules that are important cofactors or
coenzymes in metabolism

Absorption of organic wastes

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 24-7 The Large Intestine
Three Vitamins Produced by bacteria in
the Large Intestine
1. Vitamin K (fat soluble)
Required by liver for synthesizing four clotting
factors, including prothrombin
2. Biotin (water soluble)
Important in glucose metabolism (gluconeogenesis),
fatty acid synthesis, amino acid metabolism
3. Vitamin B5 (pantothenic acid) (water soluble)
Required in manufacture of steroid hormones and
some neurotransmitters
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 24-7 The Large Intestine
Organic Wastes
Bacteria convert bilirubin (heme metabolite) to
urobilinogens and stercobilinogens
Urobilinogens absorbed into bloodstream are
excreted in urine
Urobilinogens and stercobilinogens in colon
convert to urobilins and stercobilins by exposure
to oxygen
Color of feces

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 24-7 The Large Intestine
Organic Wastes
Bacteria break down peptides in feces and generate:
1. Ammonia
As soluble ammonium ions
Reabsorbed & go to hepatic portal vein
Liver converted to urea & excreted in the kidneys
2. Indole and skatole
Breakdown of certain amino acids
Nitrogen compounds responsible for odor of feces
3. Hydrogen sulfide
Gas that produces rotten egg odor
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 24-7 The Large Intestine
Organic Wastes
Bacteria feed on indigestible carbohydrates
(complex polysaccharides)
Produce flatus, or intestinal gas, in large intestine

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 24-7 The Large Intestine
Two Positive Feedback Loops
1. Short reflex
Triggers peristaltic contractions in rectum

2. Long reflex
Coordinated by sacral parasympathetic system
Stimulates mass movements

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 24-7 The Large Intestine
Rectal Stretch Receptors
Also trigger two reflexes important to
voluntary control of defecation
A long reflex
Mediated by parasympathetic innervation in
pelvic nerves
Causes relaxation of internal anal sphincter

A somatic reflex
Motor commands carried by pudendal nerves
Stimulates contraction of external anal
sphincter (skeletal muscle)
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 24-7 The Large Intestine
Elimination of Feces
Requires relaxation of internal and
external anal sphincters

Reflexes open internal sphincter, close

external sphincter

Opening external sphincter requires

conscious effort

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Figure 24-26 The Defecation Reflex.

L2a
Stimulation of somatic
motor neurons KEY

stimulates
L1 L2b
Stimulation of Increased peristalsis inhibits
parasympathetic throughout large
motor neurons in intestine
sacral spinal cord

S1
L Stimulation of myenteric
Long Reflex plexus in sigmoid colon
The long reflex is coordinated
and rectum
by the sacral parasympathetic
S system. This reflex stimulates
Short Reflex mass movements that push
S2 feces toward the rectum from
The first loop is a short Stimulation of Increased local
reflex that triggers a series the descending colon and
stretch receptors peristalsis
of peristaltic contractions sigmoid colon.
in the rectum that move
feces toward the anus.
Start
DISTENSION
OF RECTUM

Relaxation of internal
anal sphincter; feces
Voluntary relaxation of the
move into anal canal
Involuntary contraction
external sphincter can override of external anal
the contraction direction by sphincter
somatic motor neurons (L2a).

If external sphincter
is voluntarily relaxed,
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 24-8 Digestion
The Processing and Absorption of
Nutrients = Digestion

Breaks down physical structure of food

Disassembles component molecules
Molecules released into bloodstream are:
Absorbed by cells
Broken down to provide energy for ATP synthesis
Or used to synthesize carbohydrates, proteins, and
lipids

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 24-8 Digestion
Nutrients
A balanced diet contains:
Carbohydrates
Lipids
Proteins
Vitamins
Minerals
Water

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 24-8 Digestion
Digestive Enzymes
Are secreted by:
Salivary glands
Tongue
Stomach
Pancreas

FINAL processing before absorption often on

the brush border of the small intestine

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 Digestive Enzymes
Break molecular bonds in large organic
molecules
Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids
In a process called hydrolysis
Want to recycle as many complex molecules as
possibe

Are divided into classes by targets

Carbohydrases break bonds between simple
sugars
Proteases break bonds between amino acids
Lipases separate fatty acids from glycerides
Nucleases break nucleotides into sugars,
phosphates and nitrogenous bases
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Figure 24-27 Chemical Events of Digestion (Part 1 of 3).

REGION
and Hormonal Controls CARBOHYDRATES
ORAL CAVITY Salivary
amylase

ESOPHAGUS

STOMACH
Learn Me Stimulus: Anticipation or
arrival of food
Hormone: Gastrin
Source: G cells of stomach Disaccharides Trisaccharides
Proenzyme released:
Pepsinogen by chief cells,
activated to pepsin by HCl

SMALL INTESTINE
Stimulus: Arrival of chyme
in duodenum Pancreatic
Hormone: CCK alpha-amylase
Proenzymes released:
Chymotrypsinogen, procar-
boxypeptidase, proelastase,
trypsinogen. Enteropeptidase Disaccharides Trisaccharides
activates trypsin, which
activates other enzymes
Enzymes released: Pancreatic
amylase, pancreatic lipase,
nuclease, enteropeptidase
Lactase Maltase, Sucrase
INTESTINAL Brush border
MUCOSA

FACILITATED
DIFFUSION AND
COTRANSPORT

Monosaccharides
Cell body

FACILITATED
DIFFUSION

ROUTE TO BLOODSTREAM Capillary

Carbohydrates and amino acids
are absorbed and transported by
intestinal capillaries. Lipids form
Monosaccharides
chylomicrons that diffuse into
lacteals and are delivered to the left
subclavian vein by the thoracic duct.

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Figure 24-27 Chemical Events of Digestion (Part 2 of 3).

REGION
and Hormonal Controls LIPIDS
ORAL CAVITY Lingual
lipase

ESOPHAGUS

Learn Me STOMACH
Stimulus: Anticipation or
arrival of food
Hormone: Gastrin
Source: G cells of stomach
Proenzyme released:
Pepsinogen by chief cells,
activated to pepsin by HCl

SMALL INTESTINE Bile salts

Stimulus: Arrival of chyme and
in duodenum pancreatic
Hormone: CCK lipase
Proenzymes released:
Chymotrypsinogen, procar- Monoglycerides,
boxypeptidase, proelastase, Fatty acids in
trypsinogen. Enteropeptidase micelles
activates trypsin, which
activates other enzymes
Enzymes released: Pancreatic
amylase, pancreatic lipase,
nuclease, enteropeptidase
DIFFUSION
INTESTINAL Brush border
MUCOSA

Monoglycerides,
Fatty acids

Triglycerides
Cell body

Chylomicrons

EXOCYTOSIS

ROUTE TO BLOODSTREAM Lacteal

Carbohydrates and amino acids
are absorbed and transported by
intestinal capillaries. Lipids form
Chylomicrons
chylomicrons that diffuse into
lacteals and are delivered to the left
subclavian vein by the thoracic duct.

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Figure 24-27 Chemical Events of Digestion (Part 3 of 3).

REGION
and Hormonal Controls PROTEINS
ORAL CAVITY

ESOPHAGUS

Learn Me STOMACH
Stimulus: Anticipation or
arrival of food
Pepsin

Hormone: Gastrin
Polypeptides
Source: G cells of stomach
Proenzyme released:
Pepsinogen by chief cells,
activated to pepsin by HCl

SMALL INTESTINE Trypsin

Stimulus: Arrival of chyme Chymotrypsin
in duodenum Elastase
Hormone: CCK Carboxypeptidase
Proenzymes released:
Chymotrypsinogen, procar-
boxypeptidase, proelastase, Short peptides,
trypsinogen. Enteropeptidase Amino acids
activates trypsin, which
activates other enzymes
Enzymes released: Pancreatic
amylase, pancreatic lipase,
nuclease, enteropeptidase
Dipeptidases
INTESTINAL Brush border
MUCOSA

FACILITATED
DIFFUSION AND
COTRANSPORT

Amino acids
Cell body

FACILITATED
DIFFUSION AND
COTRANSPORT

ROUTE TO BLOODSTREAM Capillary

Carbohydrates and amino acids
are absorbed and transported by
intestinal capillaries. Lipids form
Amino acids
chylomicrons that diffuse into
lacteals and are delivered to the left
subclavian vein by the thoracic duct.

2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 24-28 Digestive Secretion and Water Reabsorption.

Digestive
Dietary Input Secretions

Food and drink Saliva

2000 mL 1500 mL

Water
absorbed by
osmosis down Gastric secretions
1500 mL
concentration 5000 mL

gradients Liver (bile) 1000 mL

Pancreas (pancreatic
juice) 1000 mL
Water
Reabsorption Intestinal
9000 mL secretions
Small intestine 2000 mL
reabsorbs
7800 mL

1200 mL

Colonic mucous
Colon reabsorbs secretions
1400 200 mL
1250 mL
mL

150 mL lost
in feces
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 24-8 Digestion
Ion Absorption
Osmosis does not distinguish among solutes
Determined only by total concentration of solutes
To maintain homeostasis:
Concentrations of specific ions must be
regulated
Sodium ion absorption
Rate increased by aldosterone (steroid hormone
from adrenal cortex)
Often cotransported with other substances into
a cell down Nas intracellular concentration
gradient
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 24-8 Digestion

Ion Absorption
Calcium ion absorption
Involves active transport at epithelial surface
Rate increased by parathyroid hormone (PTH) and
calcitriol

Potassium ion concentration increases:

As other solutes move out of lumen
Other ions diffuse into epithelial cells along
concentration gradient

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 24-8 Digestion
Ion Absorption
Cation absorption (magnesium, iron)
Involves specific carrier proteins
Cell must use ATP to transport ions to interstitial
fluid
Anions (chloride, iodide, bicarbonate, and
nitrate)
Are absorbed by diffusion or carrier-mediated
transport
Phosphate and sulfate ions
Enter epithelial cells by active transport
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 24-8 Digestion

Vitamins
Are organic compounds required in very small
quantities
Are divided into two major groups
1. Fat-soluble vitamins absorbed from micelles
along with fatty acids and monoglycerides
Proper absorption requires other lipids!!
2. Water-soluble vitamins easily absorbed
except for B12 which requires intrinsic factor

2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.