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Module 1

Fundamental Principles
in DC Circuits

Engr. Gerard Ang


School of EECE
ELECTRICITY

Electricity it is a property of matter that


results from the presence or movement of
electric charge. According to modern theory,
matter is electrical in nature.
STRUCTURE OF MATTER
Matter it is anything that occupies space and has
mass.
Atom it is the smallest particle of an element that
is capable of independent existence.
Molecule it is the smallest particle of matter (an
element or a compound) that is capable of free
existence.
Element it is a substance that cannot be
decomposed any further by chemical action.
Compound it is a combination of two or more
elements.
Mixture it is a material composed of two or more
substances, each of which retains its own
characteristic properties.
THE ATOM
Basic Data About the Atom
Proton it is a positively charged particle.
Electron it is negatively charged particle.
Neutron - is a particle with neutral charge (no charge).
Atomic Number it represents the number of protons or
electrons of an atom.
Atomic Mass it represents the sum of protons and electrons of
an atom.
Ion it is an atom or a group of atoms that has a net positive or
negative charge resulting from unequal number of positively
charged protons and negatively charged electrons.
Shell it is an energy level or region about the nucleus of an
atom in which electrons move. The atom has 5 shells, namely,
the K-shell (first orbit), the L-shell (second orbit), the M-shell
(third orbit), the N-shell (fourth orbit) and the O-shell (fifth orbit)
Valence electrons is the electrons found in the outermost
shell (valence shell) or orbit of an atom.
THE ATOM (cont)

Particle Charge Mass

1.602 x 10-21 C, 1.672 x 10-27


Proton
positive kg

1.602 x 10-21 C, 9.107 x 10-31


Electron
negative kg

No charge, 1.672 x 10-27 The number of electrons in any orbit is given


Neutron
neutral kg
by:

N = 2n2
Where:
N = total number of electrons on a given orbit
n = is the orbit number
ELECTRICAL CLASSIFICATION
OF MATERIALS
Electrical Conductors these are materials that
allow the essentially free passage of current when
connected to a battery or other source of electrical
energy.
Electrical Insulators these are materials that
posses low conductivity or offer a relatively high
resistance to the flow of electric current. They are also
called as dielectrics.
Electric Semiconductors these are materials that
have conductivity about midway between good
conductors and good insulators.
ELECTRICAL TERMINOLOGIES
Electric Charge (Q) it is the property of some bodies which causes them to
exert forces on each other. Two bodies with positive or negative charges repel
each other, while opposite or unlike charges attract each other. A body is said
to be charged if it has either excess or deficit of electrons from normal due
share. Its unit is the Coulomb (C) named after Charles Augustin de Coulomb
(1763 1806).

Electric Current (I) it is the motion or transfer of charges from one region of
a conductor to another. Its unit is the Ampere (A) named after Andr Marie
Ampre (1775 1836).
i = dQ/dt
Where: t = time which the current flows through a material

Electric Voltage (V or E) it is the work done in moving a unit charge (+1 C)


through an element from one terminal to the other. It is also called as electric
potential or electromotive force (emf). Its unit is the Volt (V) named in honor of
the Italian Physicist Alessandro Guissepe Antonio Anastacio Volta (1745
1827), the inventor of the voltaic battery.

Electric Potential Difference it is the difference in the electric potentials of


two charged bodies. Its unit is the volt.
SOURCES OF ELECTRIC CURRENT
The following are the methods by which electric
current can be produced:
Electric current by electromagnetic action
Electric current by chemical action
Electric current by pressure
Electric current by light
Electric current by heat
RESISTANCE
Electric Resistance (R) it is the property of a material that limits the amount of
flow of current and converts electric energy to heat energy. Its unit is the Ohm ()
named in honor of the German Physicist Georg Simon Ohm (1787 1854).

Factors affecting resistance:


1. Nature of the material
2. Length of the material
3. Cross-sectional area of the material
4. Temperature


= = = =

Where: R = resistance of the material


A = cross-sectional area of the material
= resistivity or specific resistance of the material
L = length of the material
V = volume of the material

Resistivity it is the resistance offered to a current if passed between the opposite


faces of a unit cube of the material. It is measured in ohm-m.
Sample Problems
1. A coil consists of 2,000 turns of copper wire having a cross-sectional area of 0.8
mm2. The mean length per turn is 80 cm. and the resistivity of copper is 0.02
-m. Find the resistance of the coil.
2. A heater element is made of nichrome wire having resistivity equal to 100 x 10-8
-m. The diameter of the wire is 0.4 mm. Calculate the length of the wire
required to get a resistance of 40 .
3. The resistance of a conductor 1 mm2 in cross-section and 20 m long is 0.346 .
Determine the specific resistance of the conductor material.
4. A wire of length 1 m has a resistance of 2 . Obtain the resistance if specific
resistance is doubled, diameter is doubled and the length is made three times of
the first.
5. Determine the resistivity of the material of conductor of volume 0.05 m3, length
300 meters and resistance 0.0306 .
6. One km of wire having a diameter of 11.7 mm and of resistance 0.031 is
drawn so that its diameter is 5 mm. What does its resistance become?
7. Find the resistance of a cubic centimeter of copper (a) when it is drawn into a
wire of diameter 0.032 mm and (b) when it is hammered into a flat sheet of 1.2
mm thickness, the current flowing through the sheet from one face to another,
specific resistance of copper is 1.6 x 10-8 -m.
CIRCULAR MILS AND SQUARE MILS
Circular mil (CM) it is the area of a
circle whose diameter is one mil.

1,000 mil = 1 inch


=
1 MCM = 1,000 CM

Where:
d = diameter of the conductor in mils

Square mil it is the area of a square


whose side is one mil.

=

EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE IN
RESISTANCE
The effect of variations of temperature
on the resistance of all materials is +
generally are as follows: = [ + ] =
Resistance of most of the metallic
+
conductors usually increases with rise
in temperature.
Resistance of non-conductors or
insulator usually decreases with rise in = =
+
temperature

Where:
R2 = resistance at temperature t2,
R1 = resistance at temperature t1,
t1 = initial temperature, C
t2 = final temperature, C
T = inferred zero resistance, C
= temperature when resistance of a certain
material is zero
= temperature coefficient of resistance, /C
= increase in resistance per ohm per C rise
in temperature
0 = temperature coefficient of resistance at 0C
Sample Problems

1. A coil of relay is made of copper wire. At a


temperature of 20C, the resistance of the coil is 400
. Calculate the resistance of the coil at temperature
of 80C. The temperature coefficient of copper is
0.0038/C at 0C.
2. A platinum coil has a resistance of 3.146 at 40C
and 3.767 at 100C. Find the resistance at 0C and
the temperature coefficient of resistance at 40C.
CONDUCTANCE
Conductance (G) it is the measure of the
ease with which electric current will flow through
a material. It is the reciprocal of resistance. Its
unit is Siemens (S) named after two German
engineers, Werner and William Siemens (19th
century).

= =

Where: = conductivity of the material


RESISTORS
Schematic Symbols
Resistor it is any device, which exhibits solely the property of
resistance. A resistor can either be linear or non-linear. for Various Resistors

Classification of Resistors:
1. Fixed resistance type
2. Variable resistance type

Types of resistors:
1. Carbon composition resistors
2. Wire-wound resistors
3. Metal film resistors
4. Carbon film resistors
5. Cermet film resistor

Power Rating or Wattage Rating it is the maximum power


the resistor can dissipate without being damaged without
overheating. Typical power rating of resistors are 1/8, , , 1,
2 and 5 watts.
1. The larger the physical size of a resistor, higher is the
power rating.
2. Higher wattage resistors can operate at higher
temperatures
3. Wire-wound resistors are physical larger with wattage rating
than carbon resistors.
RESISTOR COLOR CODING
Resistor color-coding is used due to the
Color 1st Digit 2nd digit Multiplier Tolerance
small physical size of the resistor to determine
the resistance and tolerance value of a Black - 0 100 -
carbon resistor. Usually, these resistors are Brown 1 1 101 1%
provided with four-color bands, which are Red 2 2 102 2%
printed at the insulated body of the resistor.
Orange 3 3 103 -
Yellow 4 4 104 -
Green 5 5 105 -
Blue 6 6 106 -
Violet 7 7 107 -
Gray 8 8 108 -
White 9 9 109 -
Gold - - 10-1 5%

Tolerance Value it is the amount, in Silver - - 10-2 10%


percent, by which the actual (measured) No color - - 20%
resistance value can deviate from the color-
coded resistance value.
Resistor Color Coding Exercises

1. red-red-black-silver
2. blue-gray-black-gold
3. brown-green-brown-gold
4. orange-orange-brown-silver
5. green-blue-brown gold
6. brown-red-redsilver
7. red-violet-redsilver
8. gray-red-redgold
9. brown-black-orangegold
10. orange-orange-orangesilver
11. blue-gray-yellownone
12. green-black-green-silver
Resistor Color Coding Exercises

1. 27 @ 10%
2. 56 @ 10%
3. 180 @ 5%
4. 390 @ 10%
5. 680 @ 5%
6. 1.5 k @ 20%
7. 3.6 k @ 10%
8. 7.5 k @ 5%
9. 10 k @ 5%
10. 47 k @ 10%
11. 820 k @ 10%
12. 2.2 M @ 20 %

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