Graphs with tiny vector

chromatic numbers and huge

chromatic numbers

Michael Langberg

Weizmann Institute of Science

Joint work with U. Feige and G. Schechtman

1
 Two fundamental NP-Hard
problems

Minimum Coloring

Maximum Independent Set

2
Minimum coloring
G=(V,E) (G)=3 Vertex-coloring:
Assignment of colors to
V s.t. endpoints of each
edge have diff. colors.

Chromatic number (G):

Minimum number of
colors needed.

3
Maximum independent set
G=(V,E) (G)=3 IS: Set of vertices
that do not share
any edges.

(G): Size of
maximum IS.

4
Coloring vs. IS
Every color class in a coloring of G is an IS.

Coloring finding a cover of

G with disjoint IS.
(G)(G) n.

Algorithms for IS algorithms for coloring.

5
 Approximation algorithms
Not likely to find efficient algorithms.
Settle on efficient approximation algorithms.
Provide solutions whose value is guaranteed
to be within a ratio no worse than r from
the value of the optimal solution.

App. ratio of algorithm ALG:

r = ALG/OPT (min.), r = OPT/ALG (max.).
r 1, the smaller the better ! 6
This talk
[KargerMotwaniSudan] introduce the notion of
vector coloring.
Plays major role in approximation algorithms for
IS and Coloring.
Our work: present tight results on the limitation
of vector coloring.

Structure:
Background on IS and Coloring.
Vector coloring.
Our results. 7
Approximating (G) & (G)
Good news:
Both (G) and (G) can be app. within ratio
n(loglog n)2/(log n)3 [Haldorsson, Feige].
Bad News:
Estimating both (G) and (G) up to a
factor of n1- is hard (unless NP is in
random polynomial time).
[Hastad, FeigeKilian ,EngebretsenHolmerin, Khot].

Relatively small gap.

8
What about restricted cases?
Consider a graph G that is known to have small
chromatic number (G)=k.
Good news:
Can efficiently find coloring with:
k=3 n colors [KargerMotwaniSudan, BlumKarger].
3/14

k=4 n colors [HalperinNathanielZwick].

7/19

k n colors (f(k)1 as k increases) [KMS, HNZ].

f(k)

Bad news [KhannaLinialSafra, GuruswamiKhanna, Khot]:

NP-hard to color 3 colorable graphs with 4 colors.
NP-hard to color k col. graphs with 5k/3, k colors.
(log k)

Gap is wide open.

9
Vector coloring [KMS]
Plays a major role in approximation algorithms
for coloring and IS (restricted cases).

Definition: G=(V,E) is vector k-colorable if one

can assign unit vectors to its vertices, s.t.
every two adjacent vertices are embedded
far apart.

10
Vector coloring cont.
Definition: G=(V,E) is vector k-colorable if one
can assign unit vectors to its vertices, s.t.
every two vectors corresponding to adjacent
vertices have inner product at most -1/(k-1).

k=3 <v ,v > -1/(k-1) = -1/2 = cos(120 )

i j
o 120o

k=11 <v ,v > -1/(k-1) = -1/10

i j cos(95o) 95o

11
Vector coloring example
Definition: G=(V,E) is vector k-colorable if one can assign unit
vectors to its vertices, s.t. every two vectors corresponding to
adjacent vertices have inner product at most -1/(k-1).

Vector 3-coloring:
k=3 -1/(k-1) = -1/2 = cos(120o)
R2

12
Vector coloring example
Definition: G=(V,E) is vector k-colorable if one can assign unit
vectors to its vertices, s.t. every two vectors corr. to adjacent
vertices have inner product at most -1/(k-1).

Vector 4-coloring:
k=4 -1/(k-1) = -1/3 cos(109o)
R3

13
Vector coloring (G)
Every k colorable graph is also vector k-col.
Identify each color class with one vertex
in a perfect k-1 dimensional simplex.

k = 4:
R3

14
Vector coloring in P
If G=(V,E) is vector k-colorable, such a vector
coloring can be computed in polynomial time
(semidefinite programming).

Min s.t.
<v ,v > for each edge (i,j) E.
<v ,v > = 1
i j

i i for each node i V.

= -1/(k-1) 15
Algorithm of [KMS]
Use vector coloring to color graphs with small
chromatic number.

Input: Graph G which satisfies (G)=3.

Output: Coloring of G with few colors.
ALG:
(G)=3 G is vector 3-colorable.
Find vector 3-coloring of G (SDP).
Use geometrical structure to find
good coloring of G.
16
Algorithm of [KMS] cont.
Objective: find large
IS in G.

Pick random cap.

Consider vertices corr. to
vectors in cap.
Small cap small IS.
Large cap large set with
many edges.

Vector 3-coloring [KMS] optimize size of cap.

17
[KMS] results
: maximum degree in G.

Graphs which are vector 3-colorable can be

colored eff. in colors (+1 trivial).
1/3

As function of n: obtain n .
1/4 [Wigderson]

Graphs which are vector k-colorable can be

colored efficiently in min(1-2/k, n1-3/(k+1)) colors.

Improving these results will yield improved

results in [BlumKarger, AlonKahale, HalperinNathanielZwick].
18
Our results
Negative in nature.

Prove that the results of [KMS] are tight.

[KMS]: Graphs which are vector k-colorable can be colored
efficiently in 1-2/k colors.

Present vector k-colorable graphs with

chromatic number at least 1-2/k- .

Will neglect in remainder of talk. 19

Previous work on limitation of
vector coloring.
As a function on n rather than .

Vector 3-colorable graphs with n 0.05

[KMS,Alon,Szegedy].
Vector k-colorable graphs with n f(k)

where f(k) 1 [KMS,Charikar,Feige].

Our results:
For k=3 we obtain n0.15.
For other k, improve f(k).
20
How large is the gap?
How good of an app. is vector coloring to (G)?
There are graphs for which ratio between (G)
O(log (n))
and vector chromatic number n/2
1/2

[Feige].
large gap

O(log1/2(n)) O(log1/2(n))
G is 2 vec. col. (G) n/2

Our results improve gap to n/polylog(n).

(k=log(n)/loglog(n)).
Vector coloring does not app. within
factor better than n/polylog(n). 21
Previous work graphs used
All previous work use similar graphs G=(V,E):
V: {0,1}n (hypercube).
E: vertices u and v are connected iff
Hamming distance is large.

Natural embedding in unit sphere 01 11

(ensures small vector chromatic number).
Known bounds on maximum IS
(ensures large chromatic num).
00 10
22
Our work
Use different graphs.
We use graphs presented in [FeigeSchechtman] that
addresses a SDP relaxation of the Max-Cut problem
[GoemansWilliamson].
Goal: G is vector 3-colorable, (G) is large (k=3).
Our graph G: place n random points on the unit sphere,
connect each two points that are far apart. I.e. inner
product at most -1/2.

120o

23
Main theorem
G is vector 3-colorable (by definition).
G has chromatic number . 1/3

24
Analyzing (G)
Do not know how to analyze (G) directly.
Follow ideas of construct G in three steps.
[FS]:

Start with a continuous graph.

V = all points on unit sphere.
E = pairs of points far appart.
Analyze expansion properties.
Switch to discrete version.
Take random sample.
25
Proof outline (G) is large.
Step 1: continuous graph.
Continuous graph is vector 3-col. A
Continuous graph has nice expansion
properties.
Step 2: discrete graph.
Discrete graph is vector 3-col.
Inherits expansion properties.
Step 3: random sample.
Random sample is vector 3-col.
Expansion properties of discrete graph B
imply random sample has large .
26
Remainder of this talk
Step 1: continuous graph.
Continuous graph is vector 3-col. A
Continuous graph has nice expansion
properties (isoperimetric
inequalities on the sphere).
Step 2: discrete graph inherits
expansion properties of continuous
graph.
Step 3: random sample.
Random sample is vector 3-col.
Expansion prop. of discrete graph B
imply random sample has large
(property testing).
27
Wait a minute !
Continuous Discrete Random

Why do we need the random graph?

Doesnt the discrete version suffice?

Properties of discrete graph (easy to prove):

Vector 3-colorable.
Large chromatic number.
Problem: Discrete graph has large degree (n1-), can not
show 1/3.

Solution: Take random sample.

Max. degree decreases.
Will show that remains large. 28
Expansion properties
of continuous graph
The continuous graph Gc
Vertex set: all points in unit sphere S . d-1

Edge set: (v ,v ) E iff <v ,v > -1/2 = cos(120 )

i j i j
o

(corresponds to vector 3-coloring).

Use natural measure for subsets of V, E.
measure = 1/2

120o

30
Main theorem
Let d = dimension of sphere, (1-)d.
Let A and B be two subsets of Gc of measure .

Theorem: The measure of edges between A and

B is at least 4|E|.

Two random subsets of measure are expected to

share 2|E| edges.
A

B
31
Proof outline
Theorem: Let A and B be two subsets of Gc of measure . The
measure of edges between A and B is at least 4|E|.

Step 1: Subsets A, B which share the least

measure of edges are caps (shifting).

Step 2: Analyze measure of edges between caps.

A

B
32
Step 1: caps share few edges
Step 1: Subsets A, B which share the least measure of edges
are caps (of same measure).

Would like a shifting procedure that converts any two sets A and
B to caps while preserving measure and decreasing
the amount of edges between A and B.
A*

Use two point

[BaernsteinTaylor]
symmetrization procedure:
Choose arbitrary hyperplane.
Consider each point and its
mirror image.
Shift up if possible.
Procedure converges into cap.
33
Measure of edges decreases
At each step measure of edges between A and B
does not increase.

Consider two vetrices A

and their mirror image.
Vertices may be in A or B
in both or not in any. B
Check number of edges
before and after shifting.
Case analysis.
Step 1: OK 34
Step 2: edges between caps
First show that caps A and B that share
minimal measure of edges satisfy A = B.
Then compute measure of edges in cap.
Good estimates are known.
A=B
A

B
35
Theorem restated
Let A and B be two subsets of Gc of measure
( (1-)d).

Theorem: The measure of edges between A and

B is at least 4|E|.

36
Continuous graph to
discrete graph
Discrete graph
Partition G into many small cells each of
c

small diameter and equal measure.

Discrete graph G d B
V = cells.
E = pairs of cells which
share edges in Gc. A

Vector 3-colorable.
Inherits expansion properties of G . c

38
Theorem discrete graph
Let G = (V,E) be the discrete graph.
d

Let A and B be two subsets of G of size

d

|V| = n ( n1-).

Theorem: The number of edges between A and

B is at least 4|E|.
B

A
39
Recall
Goal: vector 3-colorable graphs with chromatic
number at least 1/3 (k=3) .

Shown: Discrete graph Gd: Every two subsets A,

B of size n n1- share many edges.
IS of G is less than n (G ) 1/ n .
d d

Problem: d (max. degree in Gd) is very large, will

not imply desired bounds.

Solution: Take random sample R of Gd.

40
Random Sample
Expansion bounds on
Discrete graph G :
d

Nice expansion on sets

of size |G |.
d

(G ) 1/.
d

Random sample R:
(R) = (1/).
The smaller the sample the
better (better relation vs. ).

42
Property testing [GGR]
G is far from having property P small random
sample of G will not have property P.

Use property testing on discrete graph to prove

that small random sample has large .

Use property testing on discrete graph to prove

that random sample does not have large IS.

Consider property P: having large IS.

having small .
43
Property testing [GGR]
G is far from having property P small random
sample of G will not have property P.

Theorem [GoldreichGoldwasserRon]: Let G be a graph in

which each subset of size n induces at least n2 edges.
W.h.p. a random subset R of size s/4 will not have IS
of size s (R) > 1/.

Theorem [AlonKrivelevich]: Let G be a graph in which at

least n2 edges need to be removed in order to color G
with 1/ colors. W.h.p. a random subset R of size s1/2
will satisfy (R) > 1/.
44
Nave approach
Theorem [GoldreichGoldwasserRon]: Let G be a graph in
which each subset of size n induces at least n2
edges. W.h.p. a random subset R of size s/4 will not
have IS of size s (R) > 1/.

Our case G satisfies n = |E|.

d 2 4

s/ does not suffice (for our proof).

4

Will yield graphs which are vector 3-colorable

and have chromatic number 0.038 (<< 1/3).
45
Nave approach #2
Theorem [AlonKrivelevich]: Let G be a graph in which
at least n2 edges need to be removed in order to
color G with 1/ colors. W.h.p. a random subset R of
size s1/2 will satisfy (R) > 1/.

Can prove: G satisfies n = |E|.

d 2 3

s1/ does not suffice (for our proof).

2

Will yield graphs which are vector 3-colorable and

have chromatic number 0.087.

Need s to be much smaller (s /) .

46
Main theorem
Let G be a graph in which each two subsets A and B of
size n share at least n2 edges (as Gd).

Theorem: W.h.p. a random subset R of size

s/ will satisfy (R) = (1/).

Theorem: W.h.p. a random subset R of size

s/ will satisfy (R) = O(s).

Properties of our graphs G are stronger.

47
Proof outline: (R) = O(|R|)
Use ideas appearing in [GGR,AK].
Let R be random sample of G. R
Goal: Every subset of size |R|
has at least one edge.
Consider one such subset. x

Choose vertices one by one.

x
xx x
x xxx x

Each vertex defines set of neighbors

(forbidden vertices).
Once set of neighboors is very large, few additional
vertices suffice.
We show that properties of G imply set of
neighbors grows fast |R| is small. 48
Additional result
Applying our proof tech. (extension of [AK]) on graphs G
with properties as defined in [GGR] yields improved
results.

Theorem [GGR]: Let G be a graph in which each subset of size n

induces at least n2 edges. W.h.p. a random subset of size
s/4 will not have IS of size s.
Theorem: Let G be a graph in which each subset of size n
induces at least n2 edges. W.h.p. a random subset of size
s4/3 will not have IS of size s.

49
Putting things together
G : Every two subsets A and B of size n
d

share n edges. 2

|E|/n (/n).
4 2 4

R G is of size s / (n/)1/ satisfies:

d 3

(R) s (R) 1/.

(/n)s 1/ .
R
3

(R) (R)1/3

50
Concluding remarks
Present tight bounds on the chromatic
number of vector k-colorable graphs.

Open problems:
Consider stronger relaxations (strict vector
coloring Lovasz function).
Do they improve [KMS] ?
Do our negative results extend ?
Prove similar expansion on hypercube.
Further improve sample size in theorem of [GGR]
(property testing framework) to 1/ .
2

Thank you.
51
Expansion properties
of continuous graph
Main theorem
Let A and B be two subsets of Gc of measure
( < 1).

Theorem: The measure of edges between A and

B is at least 4|E|.

Two random subsets of measure are expected to

share 2|E| edges.
A

B
53
Symmetrization procedure [BT]
Choose arbitrary hyperplane.
Consider each point x and its
mirror image.

Shift up if possible.
Procedure converges into cap.
54
Proof sketch
Definition: E(A,B) = measure of edges between A and B.

Definition: 2 = all pairs of closed subsets in Sd-1 (compact w.r.t.

Hausdorff metric).

Theorem: If A and B are of measure then E(A,B) E(C,C) where C

is a cap of measure .

Proof: Let 2 be all pairs (,)2 that satisfy

(A) = (), (B) = ().
(A) (), (B) ().
E(A,B) E(,).
Will show that (C,C)2.

55
Proof outline
Let 2 be all pairs (,)2 that satisfy
(A) = (), (B) = ().
(A) (), (B) ().
E(A,B) E(,).

Claim: (C,C)2 :

is closed under symmetrization.

2

is a closed subset of .
2 2

(C,C) (two steps: first show (C,*) ).

2 2

56
Property testing
Main theorem
Let G be a graph in which each subsets A and B of size n
share at least n2 edges.

Theorem: W.h.p. a random subset R of size s/ will satisfy

(R) < 2s.

Will show:
Let G be a graph in which each subset A size n induces at
least n2 edges.

Theorem: W.h.p. a random subset R of size s1/ will satisfy

(R) < 2s.

Proof used ideas from [AlonKrivelevich]. 58

Proof outline: (R) < 2s
Let R be random sample of G.
Goal: Every subset of size 2s R

has at least one edge.

Consider one such subset.
Choose vertices one by one.
x
x
xx x
Each vertex defines set of neighbors
xx x x x

(forbidden vertices).
Once set of neighboors is very large, few additional
vertices suffice.
We show that properties of G imply set of
neighbors grows fast s is small.
59
Notation
Every subset in G has few vertices of low degree.

Definition: For each subset I of G, let N(I) be the vertices

adjacent to a vertex in I and F(I) be the remaining vertices.

Definition: A vertex v is GOOD w.r.t. a subset I if

v N(I).
v F(I), and F(I) > n, and v has at least (/)n neighbors in F(I).
Lemma: For every small I, the probability that a random vertex in
V-I is GOOD (w.r.t. I) is at least 1-.

60
Tree of independent sets
Consider the tree defined by choosing R={r1,,rs} one by one.

Node is indexed by a couple (X,Y), where X and Y are subsets of R.

If X is an IS then node is OPEN, otherwise CLOSED.
Root = (,) (OPEN).
Inductively define:
(X,Y) is OPEN and ri R is GOOD w.r.t. X:
If |Y|<s-2s define two sons: (X {r },Y) and (X, Y {r }).
Otherwise define one son (X {r },Y).
i i

(X,Y) is CLOSED, do nothing.

i

Properties: for each node X and Y are disjoint, |Y| s-2s.

61
Properties of tree
(,)

Depth: bounded by ({r1},) (,{r1})

s - 2s +/.

All leaves CLOSED ({r1,r3},) ({r2},{r1}) (,{r1,r2})

no IS of size 2s.

For s 1/, w.h.p. all
leaves are CLOSED.
(X,Y)

62
Proof sketch
Claim: For s 1/, w.h.p. all leaves are
CLOSED.
(,)

Consider potential leaf (left right choices).

Compute the probability that the path
remains OPEN after s random vertices.
The path is surely CLOSED if we hit s-2s+/

GOOD vertices out of the possible s.
Pr[path OPEN] Pr[did not hit s-2s+/]. (X,Y)

This probability is << 1/#of leaves if s is 1/.

63