By- Chirag Solanki

STATIC CHARACTERISTICS Wasim Kazmi

Mayur Veer
MECHANICAL MEASUREMENTS & METROLOGY Macklinbrett Veigas
 STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
The characteristics involved in measurement of quantities that are either constant or
slowly varying with time to define a set of criteria that gives meaningful description of
quantity of measurement are called static characteristics.
Static Calibration
Static Sensitivity
Static Error
Linearity
Threshold
Resolution
Hysteresis
Drift
Span & Range
 STATIC CALIBRATION
The static calibration refers to a situation wherein all inputs whether it is desirable or non
desirable , modifying or non modifying, interfering or non interfering are kept at constant values.
In general calibration is defined as process in which the measurand is compared with known
standard.
Steps for calibration:
1. Identify all the possible inputs of the instrument.
2. Decide which of the inputs will be significant in your application.
3. Determine the apparatus and methods to control (vary or maintain constant) all significant inputs
over the desired range.
4. By varying one input and holding the other inputs constant, develop the sensor input-output
relations.
 The characterization is related with input-output relationship. We cannot
change characteristics but we can calibrate.
e.g. Consider a junction of thermocouple is subjected to high temperature and
one at a lower temp. The o/p of thermocouple is emf generated due to
difference in temp of two junctions .By varying temperature difference we can
obtain relation between temp. change i.e. i/p and emf generated i.e. o/p.
 EXAMPLE: PRESSURE GAUGE/SENSOR
The objective in this example is to determine the relationship between the desired input
(pressure) and the output (scale reading). The first step of the calibration process requires
identifying the desired, interfering and modifying inputs of the pressure gauge.
In the second step you must determine how, or in what conditions, you are going to use the
sensor. For example, what will be the surrounding temperature? If the temperature (which is an
interfering input for this sensor) varies over a large range during the normal use of the sensor,
maybe you will have to do the (desired-input/output) calibration for different value of the
temperature.
Then you must ensure that, by choosing the appropriate experimental conditions, all the inputs
of the pressure gauge, except the fluid pressure, are kept constant. The fluid pressure (true
value) must be varied with another instrument, in increments, over some range, causing the
measured value also to vary:
 STATIC SENSITIVITY
Static sensitivity of instrument or measurement system is ratio of the magnitude of output signal
or response to the magnitude of input signal or quantity being measured.

Reciprocal of static sensitivity is called deflection factor or inverse sensitivity.

Deflection Factor = 1/ K
 Output, Vo (V)
Force, F

Slope = 5 V/kN
Load Cell Output, Vo

Input, Fi (kN)

Input, Output,
F(kN) K=5V/kN Vo(V)
 EXAMPLE OF SENSITIVITY
The resistance value of a Platinum Resistance Thermometer changes when the
temperature increases. Therefore, the unit of sensitivity for this equipment is
Ohm/C. Slope Most Sensitive
=output/
input

Variation of physical variables

The output of a platinum resistance thermometer (RTD) is as follows:
Input(C) Output(Ohm)

0 0

100 200

200 400

300 600

400 800

Calculate the sensitivity of the equipment.

Answer :
Draw an input versus output graph. From that graph, the sensitivity is the slope of the
graph.
K = , graph = (400-200) ohm = 2 ohm/C
i slope (200-100) C
 STATIC ERROR
The most important characteristic of an instrument is its accuracy, which is the
agreement of the instrument reading with the true value of quantity being measured.
The accuracy of an instrument is measured in terms of its errors.
Measurement always introduces errors.
Error may be expressed either as absolute or percentage of error :

Absolute error, e = Yn X n
where, Y expected value
n
Xn measured value
Yn X n
% Error = Y 100
n
 Yn X n
Relative accuracy, A 1
Yn
% Accuracy, a = 100% - % error
= A 100

Xn Xn
Precision, P = 1
Xn

X n - value of the nth measurement

Xn - average set of measurement
 EXAMPLE
Given expected voltage value across a resistor is 80V.
The measurement is 79V. Calculate,
i. The absolute error
ii. The % of error
iii. The relative accuracy
iv. The % of accuracy
Given that , Expected value = 80V
Measurement value = 79V
i. Absolute error, e = Yn X n = 80V 79V = 1V
Yn X n 80 79
ii. % error = 100 = 100 = 1.25%
Yn 80

Yn X n
iii. Relative accuracy, A 1
Yn
= 0.9875

iv. % accuracy, a = A x 100% = 0.9875 x 100%=98.75%

 TYPES OF ERRORS
Types of error in measurement:
1) Gross error/human error
2) Systematic Error
3) Random Error

1) Gross Error
- caused by human mistakes in reading/using instruments.
- cannot eliminate but can be minimized.
2) Systematic Error
- due to shortcomings of the instrument (such
as
defective or worn parts)
- 3 types of systematic error :-
(i) Instrumental error
(ii) Environmental error
(iii) Observational error
3) Random error
- due to unknown causes, occur when all systematic
error has accounted
- accumulation of small effect, require at high degree
of accuracy
- can be avoided by-
(a) increasing number of reading
(b) use statistical means to obtain best approximation
of true value
 Linearity
Linearity :
Basically, a mathematical equation is said to be linear
if the following properties hold.

homogeneity

additivity
What does this mean? We first look at the
property of homogeneity.
 Linearity
Linearity : Homogeneity

Homogeneity requires that if the input (excitation)

of a system (equation) is multiplied by a constant,
then the output should be obtained by multiplying
by the same constant to obtain the correct solution.

Sometimes equations that we think are linear, turn

out not be linear because they fail the homogeneity
property. We next consider such an example.
 Linearity
Linearity e.g. : Homogeneity (scaling).
Illustration: Does homogeneity hold for the following equation?
Given,

y = 4x Eq 1.1

If x = 1, y = 4. If we double x to x = 2 and substitute

this value into Eg 1.1 we get y = 8.

Now for homogeneity to hold, scaling should hold for y.

that is, y has a value of 4 when x = 1. If we increase
x by a factor of 2 when we should be able to multiply
y by the same factor and get the same answer and when
we substitute into the right side of the equation for
x = 2.
 Linearity
Linearity : Additivity Property

The additivity property is equivalent to the

statement that the response of a system to
a sum of inputs is the same as the responses
of the system when each input is applied
separately and the individual responses
summed (added together).

This can be explained by considering the

following illustrations.
 Linearity
Linearity : Additivity Property
Illustration: Given, y = 4x.

Let x = x1, then y1 = 4x1

Let x = x2, then y2 = 4x2

Then y = y1 + y2 = 4x1 + 4x2 Eq 1.3

Also, we note,
y = f(x1 + x2) = 4(x1 + x2) = 4x1 + 4x2 Eq 1.4

Since Equations (1.3) and (1.4) are identical,

the additivity property holds.

7
Threshold
If the instrument input is very gradually increased from zero there will be
a minimum value required to give a detectable output change. This
minimum value defines the threshold of the instrument.

Output

input

23
 RESOLUTION
Ability to discriminate between nearly equal values.

Difference between two input values corresponding to smallest changes in

output.

Smallest measurable input changes.

HYSTERESIS
P henomenon depicts different output effects when loading and unloading.

I nput output graph do not coincide.

C auses a difference in the output curve.

C auses Internal friction , Free play , Looseness of mechanical joint , Backlash,

Mechanical strain , etc.
 RANGE
The region between the limits within which an instrument is designed
to operate for measuring is called as range of instrument.
Has a positive value e.g..:
The range of span of an instrument which has a reading range of 100C to
100 C is 200 C.
 SPAN
The range of variable that an instrument is designed to measure is
sometimes called scale of instrument.

If X max and X min are the highest and lowest limit of calibration
then X max - X min is called as the span of the instrument.

In the case of a thermometer, its scale goes from 40C to

100C. Thus its span is 140C
 THRESHOLD
If the instrument input is very gradually increased from zero there
will be some minimum value below which no output change can be
observed or detected .
This minimum value defines threshold of the instrument.
 RESOLUTION

The smallest change in input reading that can be traced accurately.

Given in the form % of full scale (% fs).

Available in digital instrumentation.

 DRIFT
When the process of measurement takes place there are some
changes taking place in the environment such as changes in the
temperature ,pressure etc .

Such environmental changes affect the output of an instrument

and this is termed as drift.
 TYPES OF DRIFT
Drift is classified mainly into 3 types:
1. Zero drift 2. Sensitivity drift

3. Zonal drift