Chapter 3

Minerals and Rocks

Rahmat Basuki
Chemistry Division, Faculty of Science and Technology
University of Jambi
 What is Mineral?

Diamond
 What is Mineral?

Fluoride
 What is Mineral?

Talk
 What is Mineral?

Selenite gypsum
 What is Mineral?

Selenite gypsum
a. The silica tetrahedron
consists of a central Crystal/Specific
silicon atom bound to 4
oxygens.
Liquid Mercury
Coal
Ice
Solid Sulphur
 Color
Shape
Texture
Smell
Appearance
Hardness
Shine/Luster
Radioactivity
Three main rock type:

IGNEOUS

SEDIMENTARY

METHAMORPHIC
Water
Wind
Heat
Ice
METHAMORPHIC
 Mineral Resources and Mining
Some definitions:
Ore, Ore Mineral, Gangue, Resource < Reserve
Reserves are profitable and also technically & legally extractable
Commodities Au, Ag, Al, Coal, crude oil, Iron ore

Is it profitable, i.e. economic? Consider futures price, costs of energy,

infrastructure, labor, processing and environmental protection & cleanup. To do
that we consider grade, type of deposit and type of processes feasible, special
environmental problems, etc.

Prospecting, Exploration & Development, Mining: often different

companies. Who should you work for when starting out?

Current conditions: Gold at 30 year high, crude oil futures near

record prices
As a geologist, you should keep an eye on Mineweb.com
Units 1 Metric Ton AKA tonne= 10^6 grams therefore a grade of 1 g/T = 1 ppm
 Some Important Ores and a deposit
Native Ores: Gold Au, Copper Cu, Platinum Pt
Base Metal Ores: Bauxite (mostly Gibbsite Al(OH)3),
Hematite Fe2O3, Magnetite Fe3O4
Sulfide Ores: Silver as Argentite Ag2S, Copper as
Bornite Cu5FeS4, Chalcopyrite CuFeS2, or Chalcocite
Cu2S, Mercury as Cinnabar HgS, Lead as Galena
PbS, and Zinc as Sphalerite ZnS
Oxide Ores: Uranium as Uraninite UO2, Titanium as
Ilmenite FeTiO3,
Deposit: Kimberlites for Diamond C
Steps in obtaining mineral commodities
1. Prospecting: finding places where ores occur.
2. Mine exploration and development: learn whether ore
can be extracted economically.
3. Mining: extract ore from ground.
4. Beneficiation: separate ore minerals from other mined
rock. (Mill)
5. Refining: extract pure commodity from the
ore mineral. (Refinery)
6. Transporation: carry commodity to market.
7. Marketing and Sales: Find buyers and sell the
commodity.
Mining is an economic activity.
The decision to mine (or not to mine) a particular ore
deposit depends upon:
an analysis of costs, benefits and risks

These considerations are both:

tangible (i.e. dollar profit)
and
intangible (i.e. hopes of stimulating the economy,
fears of environmental damage)
3. Prospecting: finding where ores occur
Important Factors:
Applying knowledge of association of ores with specific
geological settings.

using remote sensing techniques such as satellite imagery, seismic reflection

profiles, magnetic field intensity, strength of gravity to detect geological
structures.
photos useful in finding faults.
small basaltic intrusions have prominent magnetic anomalies.
dense ore bodies can have prominent gravity anomaly.
developing detailed maps of rock types and geological structures (faults, folds,
intrusions).
developing 3-d picture of geological structures containing ore.
obtaining samples of ore for chemical analysis.

WHERE DO WE LOOK?
A review from your Geology 1200 Course

Recall that several processes can produce

magmas. All are initially basaltic in
composition. Basalts contain minor amounts
of precious metals.

Late Fractionation Pegmatites

Hydrothermal MOR
Au, Ag

MOTHER LODE

Magmas can form near

subduction zones when
water causes partial
melting of nearby
mantle. Granitic
magmas form by
fractionation of basaltic
magmas and by
assimilation. Once the
granite has frozen,
silica-rich late
fractionation waters
with dissolved metals
are left to intrude
nearby rock.
Most searches near continental volcanic arcs
e.g. Andes (Inca Gold) , Sierra Nevada (1849 gold rush)
 Initially Basaltic, rising magma may become silica-rich through two processes.

Fractionation and Assimilation

Assimilation

Fractionation
Granitic melt genesis
 Metal-rich waters may originate from the magma or groundwater
Au, Ag

Metal ores precipitate

near surface

Heated
groundwater
dissolves metals

Two mechanisms for metals emplacement near granitic intrusions (both occur)
 Ore mineral Gold Au
Gold Ore

Gangue Mineral Quartz

Popular term Mother Lode initial placement

Ore Body
Placers: Gold is concentrated as a detrital sediment
Magma 2: formation at divergence zone

Seawater gets into

Black Smoker cracks, heats up near
on cracks near magma magma, dissolves metals Cu, Fe, etc
MOR in mafic rocks, convection
currents return hydrothermal
waters to cold ocean waters
(also ion-rich). Sulfides precipitate
forming a Black Smoker

Decompression melting
 Cu, Fe Black Smokers

Example:
Sterling Hill

Island of Cyprus made of

Ophiolites with black smokers.
Source of copper that started
bronze age

http://collections.ic.gc.ca/geoscience

Circulation of hot water in cracks at mid-ocean ridge dissolves metals in Basalt, (Copper, Iron, Zinc, Lead,
Barium) which are re-precipitated as various ores, often Sulfides. Accumulate in ocean sediments.
Magma formation 3: Plumes

Diamond exploration
C (diamond)
Subduction zones pull carbon down to depths necessary for Diamond formation.
Plumes rise from depths far below diamond formation depths. A plume cutting
across subduction zone will lift diamonds to the surface

Diamond exploration
 Seamount Trails point to the Kimberlite

Plumes cause straight chains of seamounts on the ocean floor

The Atlantic rift has moved America west of several plumes.
These were once under the continent, sometimes under old subduction zones.
Use chains of seamounts to point to old positions of the plumes hot spot.
Extend those lines onto North American continent
Find where those projected lines cross sutures between PreCambrian Cratons
assembling North America. Now use Google Earth to search for Maars

Here is a set of links related to this topic: Diamond exploration

Includes Bauxite enrichment from Laterites
Concentration of Aluminum as Bauxite Ore

From a Laterite similar to the one outside

Gibbsite Al(OH)3 is the main mineral in Bauxite ore

Petrology Field Trip to Bemco Mining District
Discussion: Make a group consist 3 or 4 student and then discuss
about
1. Oxide minerals (MgO/Periclase; Al2O3/Corondum; SiO2/Silica
polymorphase)
2. Titanium oxide; Manganese oxide; Iron oxide.
3. Silicate: Olivine, garnets, pyroxene.
4. Silicate: Amphiboles; Micas; Feldspar.
5. Silicate minerals, carbonate, borate.
6. Inorganic molecule: SiO, SiO2, Si2O2, Si3O3, SiF4.
7. Sulphide minerals: Sphalerite, wurzite and relative phase (ZnS, CdS,
HgS, FeS).
8. Galena (PbS), Sellenide & Telluride (PbSe, PbTe).
9. Pyrite (FeS2), Pyrrohottite (Fe1-xS), & related phase (CoS2, NiS2,
CuS2, ZnS2, CoS, NiS).
10. Marcasite (FeS2), Arsenopyrite (FeAsS), Iollignite (FeAs2), & related
minerals.
11. Copper, copper-iron, & realted minerals (Cu2S, CuS, CuFeS2, Cu5FeS4,
Ag2S)
Discuss scope:
Composition and element
Geometric structure
Physical appearance (color, harness etc)
Spectra & electronic structure
Abundance
Utility
Production site/ related industry in Indonesia
Separation/Mining/metallurgy technique