Chapter 2

Conduction

Chapter 2 1
 Conduction Heat Transfer
Conduction refers to the transport of energy in a medium (solid, liquid
or gas) due to a temperature gradient.
The physical mechanism is random atomic or molecular activity
Governed by Fouriers law

In this chapter we will learn

The definition of important transport properties and what governs
thermal conductivity in solids, liquids and gases
The general formulation of Fouriers law, applicable to any
geometry and multiple dimensions
How to obtain temperature distributions by using the heat diffusion
equation.
How to apply boundary and initial conditions

Chapter 2 2
 Thermal Properties of Matter
Recall from Chapter 1, equation for heat conduction:

T1 T2 T
q"x k k
L L
The proportionality constant is a transport property, known as thermal
conductivity k (units W/m.K)
Usually assumed to be isotropic (independent of the direction of
transfer): kx=ky=kz=k
Is thermal conductivity different between gases, liquids and solids?

Chapter 2 3
 Thermal Conductivity: Solids
Solid comprised of free electrons and atoms bound in lattice
Thermal energy transported through
Migration of free electrons, ke
Lattice vibrational waves, kl
1
k k e kl where ke
electrical resistivity, (e )

? What is the relative magnitude in pure metals, alloys and non-metallic

solids?

See Figure 2.5, Appendix Tables A.1, A.2 and A.3 text
Chapter 2 4
 Thermal Conductivity: Fluids
Intermolecular spacing is much larger
Molecular motion is random
Thermal energy transport less effective than in solids; thermal
conductivity is lower
Kinetic theory of gases:

k nc
where n the number of particles per unit volume, c the mean
molecular speed and l the mean free path (average distance travelled
before a collision)
? What are the effects of temperature, molecular weight and pressure?

Chapter 2 5
 Thermal Conductivity: Fluids
Physical mechanisms controlling thermal conductivity not well
understood in the liquid state
Generally k decreases with increasing temperature (exceptions
glycerine and water)
k decreases with increasing molecular weight.
Values tabulated as function of temperature. See Tables A.5 and A.6,
text.

Chapter 2 6
 Thermal Conductivity: Insulators
? How can we design a solid material with low thermal
conductivity?

Can disperse solid material throughout an air space fiber,

powder and flake type insulations
Cellular insulation Foamed systems
Several modes of heat transfer involved (conduction, convection,
radiation)
Effective thermal conductivity: depends on the thermal conductivity
and radiative properties of solid material, volumetric fraction of the air
space, structure/morphology (open vs. closed pores, pore volume,
pore size etc.) Bulk density (solid mass/total volume) depends strongly
on the manner in which the solid material is interconnected. See Table
A.3.
Chapter 2 7
 Thermal Diffusivity
Thermophysical properties of matter:
Transport properties: k (thermal conductivity/heat transfer), n
(kinematic viscosity/momentum transfer), D (diffusion coefficient/mass
transfer)
Thermodynamic properties, relating to equilibrium state of a system,
such as density, and specific heat cp.
the volumetric heat capacity cp (J/m3.K) measures the ability of a
material to store thermal energy.
Thermal diffusivity a is the ratio of the thermal conductivity to the heat
capacity:

k
a
c p

Chapter 2 8
 The Conduction Rate Equation
Recall from Chapter 1:

Heat rate in the dT

x-direction
qx kA
dx
Heat flux in the q dT
q"x k
x-direction A dx

We assumed that T varies only

T1(high) qx A in the x-direction, T=T(x)

Direction of heat flux is normal

to cross sectional area A, where
T2 (low) A is isothermal surface (plane
x1 x2 normal to x-direction)
x
Chapter 2 9
 The Conduction Rate Equation
In reality we must account for heat transfer in three dimensions
Temperature is a scalar field T(x,y,z)
Heat flux is a vector quantity. In Cartesian coordinates:
q"x iq"x jq"y kq"z
T " T " T
for isotropic medium q"x k , q y k , qz k
x y z
T T T
q k i j k k T
x y z
Where three dimensional del operator in cartesian coordinates:

i j k
x y z
Chapter 2 10
 Summary: Fouriers Law

It is phenomenological, ie. based on experimental evidence

Is a vector expression indicating that the heat flux is normal to an
isotherm, in the direction of decreasing temperature
Applies to all states of matter
Defines the thermal conductivity, ie.

q"x
k
( T / x )

Chapter 2 11
 The Heat Diffusion Equation
Objective to determine the temperature field, ie. temperature
distribution within the medium.
Based on knowledge of temperature distribution we can compute the
conduction heat flux.
Reminder from fluid mechanics: Differential control volume.

Element of volume:
dx dy dz
We will apply the energy
conservation equation to
the differential control
volume
CV
T(x,y,z)

Chapter 2 12
 Heat Diffusion Equation
dE
Energy Conservation Equation E in E g E out st E st (2.1)
dt
z
E in q x q y q z
E out q x dx q y dy q z dz

where from Fouriers law

T T
x q x kAx k ( dydz)
x x
T T
y q y kAy k ( dxdz)
z
y y
y T T
q z kAz k ( dxdy)
x z z
Chapter 2 13
 Heat Diffusion Equation
Thermal energy generation due to an energy source: E g q dV
Manifestation of energy conversion process (between
thermal energy and chemical/electrical/nuclear energy) q ( dx dy dz)
Positive (source) if thermal energy is generated
Negative (sink) if thermal energy is consumed

q is the rate at which energy is generated

per unit volume of the medium (W/m3)

Energy storage term T

E st c p (dx dy dz)
Represents the rate of change of thermal energy t
stored in the matter in the absence of phase change.

is the time rate of change of the sensible

c p T / t (thermal) energy of the medium per unit
volume (W/m3)

Chapter 2 14
 Heat Diffusion Equation
Substituting into Eq. (2.1):
Heat
T T T T Equation
k k k q c p
x x y y y z t (2.2)

rate of time rate of

Net conduction of heat into the CV energy change of
generation thermal
per unit energy per
volume unit volume

At any point in the medium the rate of energy transfer by conduction into
a unit volume plus the volumetric rate of thermal energy generation must
equal the rate of change of thermal energy stored within the volume

Chapter 2 15
 Heat Diffusion Equation- Other forms
If k=constant

2T 2T 2T q 1 T k
2 2 a
c p
is the thermal diffusivity
x 2
y z k a t (2.3)
For steady state conditions

T T T
k k k q 0 (2.4)
x x y y y z
For steady state conditions, one-dimensional transfer in x-direction
and no energy generation

d dT dq"x Heat flux is constant in

k 0 or 0 the direction of transfer
dx dx dx
Chapter 2 16
 Heat Diffusion Equation

In cylindrical coordinates:

1 T 1 T T T
kr 2 k k q c p (2.5)
r r r r z z t

In spherical coordinates:

1 2 T 1 T 1 T T
kr
2 2
k
k sin
q c p
r 2
r r
r sin r 2
sin t

(2.6)

Chapter 2 17
 Example (Problem 2.23 textbook)
The steady-state temperature distribution in a one-dimensional wall of
thermal conductivity 50 W/m.K and thickness 50 mm is observed to
be T(C)=a+bx2, where a=200C, b=-2000C/m2, and x is in meters.
a) What is the heat generation rate in the wall?
b) Determine the heat fluxes at the two wall faces. In what manner are
these heat fluxes related to the heat generation rate?

Chapter 2 18
 Boundary and Initial Conditions
Heat equation is a differential equation:
Second order in spatial coordinates: Need 2 boundary conditions
First order in time: Need 1 initial condition

Boundary Conditions
Example: a surface is in contact with a melting solid or a boiling liquid
1) B.C. of first kind (Dirichlet condition):

Ts

T(x,t)
x
Chapter 2 19
 Boundary and Initial Conditions
Example: What happens when an electric heater is attached to a
surface? What if the surface is perfectly insulated?
2) B.C. of second kind (Neumann condition): Constant heat flux at the
surface

qx

T(x,t)
x

T(x,t)
x
Chapter 2 20
 Boundary and Initial Conditions
3) B.C. of third kind: When convective heat transfer occurs at the surface

T(0,t)
T , h

T(x,t)
x

Chapter 2 21
 Example 2.3, textbook
A long copper bar of rectangular cross section, whose width w is much greater
than its thickness L, is maintained in contact with a heat sink (for example an
ice bath) at a uniform initial temperature To. Suddenly an electric current is
passed through the bar, and an airstream of temperature T is passed over
the top surface, while the bottom surface is maintained at To. Obtain the
differential equation, the boundary and initial conditions that can be used to
determine the temperature as a function of position and time inside the bar.

Chapter 2 22
 Example (Problem 2.39, textbook)
Passage of an electric current through a long conducting rod of radius
ri and thermal conductivity kr results in uniform volumetric heating at a
rate of q . The conducting rod is wrapped in an electrically
nonconducting cladding material of outer radius ro and thermal
conductivity kc, and convection cooling is provided by an adjoining
fluid.
For steady-state conditions, write appropriate forms of the heat
equations for the rod and cladding. Express appropriate boundary
conditions for the solution of these equations.

Chapter 2 23