Business Communication

BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
Unit I
Communication
Fundamentals
What is Communication?
COMMUNICATION
We live in a world of communication: a world in which people
react violently or peacefully to a statement, an action, or a
concept. Pick up the newspaper, snap on the radio, or flip on
the TV for proof. A world leader directs a statement of
hostility to another (communication), and tanks begin to roll! A
president or prime minister steps down (communication), and
peace settles over a torn and battered nation. A
representative speaks in the United Nations (communication),
and fifteen minutes later, rioting and bloodshed take place six
thousand miles away. Nations, companies, families, and
individuals in today’s world constantly act and react as a
result of communication.
Sigband and Bateman 1981

Relevant Questions about
Communication
1. WHAT IS COMMUNICATION?
2. HOW DOES COMMUNICATION WORK?
3. WHY DOES COMMUNICATION HAPPEN?
4. WHAT ARE THE BARRIERS TO

COMMUNICATION?
What is communication?
WHAT IS COMMUNICATION?
Can we ever agree on the true nature of communication?
Here are some descriptions of human behavior. Does
communication take place in all of them?
(A) _______You yawn, but no one sees it.
(B) _______You yawn, and your friend later realizes that you
were tired even though she didn’t pay any attention to it at the
time.
(C) _______You yawn, and your friend says, “Am I that
boring?”
(D) _______You wave at a friend, but he doesn’t see you.
(E) _______Your friend later says, “I’m sorry I didn’t wave
back, but I was thinking about something else and didn’t
realize you had waved to me until after I turned the corner.”
What is communication?
(F) _______You wave to a friend, and she waves back.
(G) _______You send a letter to a friend, but it gets lost in the
mail.
(H) _______Your dad lectures you for having a messy room,
and although you know he is talking to you, you really
aren’t paying much attention.
(I) _______You give a speech to a group that is eager to
hear what you have to say.
Adapted from Littlejohn 2002: p. 8

Communication
• Communication is the transferring and
understanding meanings
• The best idea, or suggestions, or plans cannot
take form without communications
• Communication can take many forms:
– Oral vs. written
– Verbal vs.non-verbal
– Interpersonal vs. organizational
COMMUNICATION
Communication is the process of sending
and receiving messages.
Communication is complete when feedback
is received, message is understood, the
receiver assigned the same meaning to
the message as you intended, and action
taken.
Achieving success in today’s
workplace depends on
effective communication among
employees and their managers as
well as with people outside the
organisation such as customers,
suppliers, government, NGO(non-
governmental organizations),and
stakeholders (various groups you
interact with)
Communication challenges in
today’s workplace
• Advances in technology: Use of new technological
tools (internet, e-mail, voice mail, faxes, intranet,
extranet, e-commerce) increase the speed,
frequency,and reach of communication.
• Market Globalization: Increasing tendency of the
world to act as one market driven by technological
advances in telecommunication
• Workforce Diversity: Workforce is made up of
people with diverse cultural and ethnic backgrounds.
• Team-based Organizations:Organizations use
teams and collaborative work groups to make fast
decisions required to succeed in a global and
competitive market place.
Communication: The Role of ICT
In business, communication can be:
• between individuals
• between individuals and organisations
• within a business
• between a business and an external
organisation
Communication
Communication takes place within
networks. These are some of the types of
network:
• chain
• circle
• wheel
• all-channel
Communication
• A chain network e.g
formal contact
Communication
• A circle network e.g.
between people at the
same level
Communication
• A wheel network e.g.
sales teams report to
head office
Communication
• An all-channel network
e.g. brainstorming
Communication
Communication in the business world is
very different today compared to twenty
years ago, because of:
• Information and Communication
Technology (ICT)
Examples of ICT Use
• Mobile telephones
• Video and tele-conferencing
• Lap-top computers
• E-mail
• Multi-media communications
Communication Failure
No matter what medium of communication is

used, it can fail if:
• jargon is used inappropriately
• badly written messages are transmitted
• the message goes to the wrong receiver
• information overload takes place
• the communication channel breaks down
Communication Failure
In the UK until recently, firms wanting to move
into e-commerce have been:
• prevented due to slow connection speeds
• affected by lack of broadband services
Go to the Activity for more on this.

Communication in Business
Communication
• Transferring information from one part of the
business to another that leads to some outcome,
changed behaviour or changed practice
• Formal Communication – established and
agreed procedures
• Informal Communication – channels not
formally recognised – ‘the grapevine’
Communication
Finance Dept
Change in
E-mail
payment systems
Sender or Channel Medium Receiver

Instigator
Feedback
Communication
• Methods:
– Verbal – face to face
– Written
– Electronic
– Visual
– Audio
– Group meetings
– Notice boards
– Text!
Communication
• Medium:
– Letters
– Memo
– Report
– Notice board
– Faxes
– Telephone
– E-mail
– Face to face
– Body language
– Video/video conferencing
– Internet
Communication
• Choice of Medium affected by:
– Need for record
– Direction of the information flow
– Number of people to be reached
– Confidentiality
– Nature of the information – length, complexity, speed of
transfer
– Cost of the medium
The Communication Process
Encoding Channel Decoding
Message Message
Sender Receiver
Noise
Feedback
COMMUNICATION PROCESS
The six steps of communication process:
1) The sender has an idea
2) The sender encodes the idea
3) The sender transmits the message
4) The receiver gets the message
5) The receiver decodes the message
6) The receiver sends feedback
(Comm.Process cont.)
1.The sender has an idea
You have an idea/information

and want to share it. Express
the idea.
(Comm.Process cont.)
2.The sender encodes the idea

When you put your idea into a message
form that your receiver will understand,
you are encoding it. You decide on the
message’s form (words, facial expression,
gesture), length, organization, tone, and
style- all of which depends on your idea,
your audience, and your personal style or
mood.
(Comm. Process cont.)
3.The sender transmits the message

To physically transmit your message to
your receiver, you select a communication
channel (spoken or written) and a medium
(telephone, letter, memo, e-mail, fax,
report, face-to-face exchange). This
choice depends on your message, your
audience’s location, your need for speed,
formality required, and the media available
to you.
4.The receiver gets the message
For communication to occur your receiver
must first get the message. If you send a
letter, your receiver has to read it before
understanding it. If you are giving a
speech, your receiver has to hear you and
has to pay attention.
5.The receiver decodes the message
Your receiver must decode (absorb and

understand) your message. The decoded
message must then be stored in the
receiver’s mind.
6.The receiver sends feedback
After decoding the message, the receiver

may respond in some way and signal that
response to you. This response
(feedback) enables you to evaluate the
effectiveness of your message.
Example
Write out the steps of
communication process and use
these steps to communicate to
Mr. Akshay that his application for
the position of Project Manager
has been accepted by the
company.
Communication Channels
Written Communication
Verbal Communication
The Grapevine
Nonverbal Cues
Electronic Media
Identifying barriers
Communication is about overcoming barriers.
State all the barriers

that you can think of
that impact on your
day-to-day
communication.
Common barriers to communication:
Apparent ‘cause’ Practical Example
Physiological Message in an internal report not received due to blindness.
Psychological Message from external stakeholder ignored due to ‘groupthink’
Cultural Message from organisation misinterpreted by members of a

particular group
Political Message from internal stakeholder not sent because individual is
marginalised
Economic Message not available to a public sector organisation due to lack
of resources
Technological Message not delivered due to technical failure
Physical Message cannot be heard and visual aids cannot be seen by

some members of the audience
Common barriers to communication: probing for ‘causes’

Communication Barriers
Filtering
Selective
Apprehension Perception
Information
Language Overload
Emotions
1)Perceptual and Language Differences
2)Restrictive Environments
3)Deceptive Communication Tactics
4)Distractions
Comm. Barriers
1) Perceptual and LanguageDifferences:
Perception is people’s individual interpretation of

the sensory world around them.
Selective perception: As a sender you choose
the details that seem important to you. As a
receiver, you try to fit new details into your
existing pattern, if a detail doesn’t quite fit,
you’re inclined to distort the information rather
than rearrange your pattern- a process known
as selective perception.
Comm. Barriers cont.
1)Perceptual and Language Differences:
Language: is an arbitrary (random) code

that depends on shared definition
2)Restrictive Environments
Restrictive environment is when
information flow is limited, blocked by an
authoritarian style of management.
3)Deceptive Communication Tactics
Deceptive comm. (exaggerating

benefits,quoting inaccurate statistics,
hiding negative or positive information,
displaying graphic data unfairly, leaving
out crucial info.) manipulates receivers,
blocks comm. and leads to failure.
4)Distractions
• Physical Distractions: Background
noise, bad connection on phone, poor
accoustics, illegible copy, uncomfortable
chair, poor lighting, health problems, poor
air conditioning
4)Distractions
• Emotional Distraction: When you are
upset, hostile, or fearful, you have hard
time shaping your message objectively.
4)Distractions cont.
• Information Overload: Too much
information make it difficult to discriminate,
sort out what is useful/not useful
information.
• Round the clock accessibility: To be
accessible immediately wherever
whenever. Technology demands instant
answers. Professionals are constantly tied
to work by cell phones, voice mail, e-mail.
Physiological Barriers
• Physiological barriers to communication are those that result from
the performance characteristics and limitations of the human
body and the human mind.
Perception – object recognition
Perception – object recognition

What’s your perception?
Optical illusion (1)
Optical illusion (2)
Port 1010 building in the Docklands region of Melbourne, Australia.

1010 LaTrobe Street, Docklands, Melbourne, VIC, Australia, 3008
Human memory processes
Human memory processes: a three-stage model

Human Memory
• The sensory memory acts as a
kind of temporary collection-
point for incoming stimuli of all
kinds; this limit is often identified
as 6–7 separate pieces of
information.
• Consider the three out of ten

best slogans of all time
according to Inc. magazine:
Social, cultural and ethical barriers
• Social barriers to communication include the social
psychological phenomenon of conformity; a process in
which the norms, values and behaviours of an individual
begin to follow those of the wider group.
• Cultural barriers to communication, which often arise
where individuals in one social group have developed
different norms, values, or behaviours to individuals
associated with another group.
• Ethical barriers to communication; these occur when
individuals working in an organisation find it difficult to
voice dissent, even though their organisation is acting
in ways they consider to be unethical.
Cultural barriers
• Cultures shape the way we think and behave.
• They can be seen as both shaping and being shaped
by our established patterns of communication.
• Nations, occupations, organisations, teams and
other social groupings, all share a tendency to
develop distinctive cultures.
The iceberg metaphor for culture
Figure 2.5 The iceberg metaphor for culture

Source: http://www.indoindians.com/lifestyle/culture.htm
Culture and environment
Robert Laws, a Scottish missionary working in Malawi, Africa, in the late 1800s:
“The influence of culture and environment can have an effect on our visual
perception. What you see will largely depend on where you live in the world.”
• Where are they?

• What is above the
woman's head?
Barriers to ethical behaviour
Three communication-related barriers to ethical
behaviour in business organisations are:
• ‘moral silence’, failing to speak up about issues
that are known to be wrong;
• ‘moral deafness’, failure to hear or attend to
moral concerns raised by others;
• ‘moral blindness’, failure to recognise the moral
implications of actions.
(Bird 2002)
Ethical choice (1)
Your company has been a major employer in
the local community for years, but shifts in the
global marketplace have forced some changes
in the company. In fact, the company plans to
reduce staffing by as much as 50% over the
next 3 to 5 years. The size and timing of future
layoffs have not been decided, but a small
layoff will certainly start next month. You are in
charge of writing a letter on this issue. Your first
draft is as follows:
“this first layoff is part of a continuing series of
staff reductions anticipated over the next
several years.”
Ethical choice (2)
Your first draft is as follows:
“this first layoff is part of a continuing series of
staff reductions anticipated over the next
several years.”
Your boss is concerned about the negative
tone of the language and suggests the
following sentence:
“this layoff is a part of the company’s ongoing
efforts to continually align its resources with
global market conditions.”
Do you think this suggested wording is ethical?
Ethical choice (3)
• “This first layoff is part of a continuing series of staff
reductions anticipated over the next several years.” (Too
Negative)
• “This layoff is a part of the company’s ongoing efforts to
continually align its resources with global market
conditions.” (Unethical)
• The company should be as specific as possible without
causing itself unnecessary damage.
“Unless business conditions change, we anticipate further
reductions in the future, but we are currently unable to
identify the timing or extent of such reductions.”
Overcoming Bias in Language
Example Unacceptable Preferable
Gender bias Salesman Salesperson;
Sales representative
Manpower Workforce; Workers
Man-made Artificial; Manufactured
Ethnic bias Jim Wong is an Jim Wong is very tall
unusually tall Asian
Disability bias Crippled workers Workers with physical
face many barriers disabilities face many
on the job barriers on the job
Overcoming the barriers
 Taking the receiver more seriously
 Thinking more clearly about the
message
 Delivering messages skilfully
 Focusing on the receiver
 Using multiple channels and
encoding
 Securing appropriate feedback
Guidelines for overcoming
communication barriers:
1)Adopt an audience-centered approach
2)Foster open-communication climate
3)Commit to ethical communication
4)Create efficient messages

Overcoming communication
barriers
1)Adopt an audience-centered
approach:Make your message
meaningful for those who will receive
it.
2)Foster Open-Communication
Climate:Get everyone participate
share their ideas and feelings freely
with everyone else.
Overcoming communication barriers
cont.
3)Commit to ethical communication
Ethics are principles of conduct that
govern a person or a group. Ethical
communication includes true
accurate information. Ethical people
are trustworthy, fair, not deceptive,
respecting the rights of others.
Overcoming communication barriers
cont.
4)Create efficient messages:
Minimize physical distractions
Minimize emotional distractions
Overcoming
• Constrain emotions
• Watch nonverbal cues
• Use feedback
• Simplify language
• Listen actively
Unit I
Types of Communication
Types of Communication
1. Personal communication and Business
communication
2. Internal communication and External
communication
3. Upward communication and Downward
communication
4. Formal communication and Informal
communication
5. Lateral communication
6. Interactive communication
7. Mass communication
8. Grapevine
Communication in organizational settings
Internal External
• Formal • Formal
communication communication
network network
• Informal • Informal
communication communication
network network
Internal Communication
The exchange of information

and ideas within an
organisation
Internal Communication cont.
Formal Communication Network:

Information may travel down, up,
and across an organisation’s
formal hierarchy.
Internal Communication cont.
Informal Communication
Network:
People have casual
conversations with friends in the
office about anything (personal
and business matters)
External Communication
External communication
carries information into and
out of the organization.
External Communication cont.
Formal Communication Network:

(letter, website, phone, fax, internet,
videotape)
Marketing or public relations team’s job is
to create and manage the flow of formal
messages to outsiders.
External Communication cont.
Informal Communication Network:

(Networking)
Informal contacts with outsiders
are important for learning about
customer needs.
Effective Business
Communication
• Provide practical information
• Give facts rather than impressions
• Clarify and condense information
• State precise responsibilities
• Persuade others and offer
recommendations
Forms of Communication
1. Oral communication
2. Written communication
3. Non-Verbal communication
4. Visual communication
5. Audio-Visual communication
6. Silence
Unit I
Verbal and Non-Verbal

Communication
Defining Verbal & Non-Verbal
Before we turn our attention to a detailed
explanation of non-verbal communication
(NVC), we need to be very clear about our
understanding of the term ‘verbal’
Quick discussion – what do you think

‘verbal’ means?
Verbal Communication
• We often use the term ‘verbal’ to mean
‘spoken’ eg. “I gave her a verbal warning”
• In Communication & Culture, we use the

word ‘verbal’ in a slightly different and
more technical way
Definition of Verbal
Verbal = communicating with words
and language (as opposed to images,
actions or behaviour)
Verbal communication is restricted to

language
‘Design Features’ of Language
• Language enables us to communicate
about events beyond our immediate
sensory experience
• The capacity of language is infinite

Introduction to non-verbal
communication
– in communication with others only 30 % of the
communication is verbal, 70 % is non-verbal
– non-verbal communication involves gestures,

facial expressions, eye contact …
– our non-verbal behaviour is mostly

subconscious
Definition of NVC
“All communication other than that involving words and
language”
• This is fine but could include everything from animal

communication to films to gardening. For our purposes
we will use a more restricted definition:
“Bodily communication, other than words and language”

Comparing verbal and non-verbal
communication
• both are symbolic, communicate meaning and
are patterned
• all societies have different non-verbal languages
• the non-verbal communication is more than just

body language; the use of time and personal
space, our voice etc.
Forms
1. Different categories (or types) of NVC
2. The functions (or uses) of NVC
Before we do this, we need to establish some

general points about NVC and its relationship
to language and culture
Relationship between NVC,
Language & Culture
• When travelling, we do not, on the whole, make the
assumption that everyone will understand our first and
preferred language
• Most of us accept we must either learn a new language

or rely entirely on verbal signals for communication
• We assume we will have no difficulty in decoding non-

verbal clues
• We need to be aware of the enormous range and

diversity of non-verbal behaviour
What emotions do these facial
expressions portray?
NVC, Language & Culture
• Even in the secure territory of your own
familiar culture, care is needed in the
interpretation of non-verbal clues
• Jumping to conclusions about meanings

of non-verbal clues can be dangerous
Your Approach to NVC
• You should suggest possible meanings and
interpretations when analysing NVC, whilst
paying due regard to the influence of context
and culture and context
• Your own culture and context has an impact on
the deciphering of NVC
• Interpretations are both relative and subjective
Categorisation of NVC –
Paralanguage
PARALANGUAGE CONSISTS OF THE NON-VERBAL ELEMENTS
THAT ACCOMPANY SPEECH. IT INCLUDES:
- The way we speak (also known as prosodic features)

- Volume, pitch, intonation, speed of delivery, articulation, rhythm
- The sounds we make other than language
- Laughter, crying, yawning, sighing, screeching, coughing
- Filled pauses such as ‘Mmmm’, ‘Ahhh’, ‘Ummm’
- Unfilled pauses
Categorisation of NVC -
Paralanguage
There are clear variations both within and between cultures in the
use of paralinguistic features.
David Crystal points out some cultural differences:
A ‘creaky’ or ‘gravely’ tone of voice is often used in English to

convey unimportance or disparagement; but in Finnish, it is a
normal feature of many voice qualities. And there is no
equivalent in English to the use of strongly nasalised speech to
convey a range of emotional nuances in Portuguese”
(Crystal, 1987)
Accent & Paralanguage
Elocution lessons were once very popular amongst

the middle classes, especially for those young
people who were sent to ‘finishing school’ as a
preparation for ‘polite society.
Categorisation of NVC – Physical
Appearance
• Clothing, hairstyle, make-up, body adornment,
jewellery, tattoos, piercing, glasses, facial hair,
accessories such as bags
• You only have to think of the huge industries

associated with the above examples to
recognise the cultural significance of physical
appearance
Appearance
• Includes the things with which we cover or
adorn our bodies, but also the shape and
size of our bodies
• It is the body’s capacity to communicate
aspects of an individual’s identity which
makes us so aware of our physical
appearance
Appearance
• Self expression is a fairly recent
development in historical terms
• Many societies had (and some still do

have) highly regulated codes of dress,
often linked to rank and status
Tudor monarchs, such
as Elizabeth I, used
Sumptuary Laws and
Statutes of Apparel to
control what people
could wear eg. only royalty
were permitted to wear
ermine trims while fox and
otter trims were restricted
to members of the nobility.
Appearance
• Self expression in contemporary culture is also
limited by requirements to wear uniforms or to
observe dress codes
• Not necessarily restricted to schools and public
services
• Many corporations and organisations expect
employees to communicate a corporate rather
than an individual identity
Further Categories of NVC -
Activity
- Body movement (kinesics)
- Closeness (proxemics)
- Touching (haptics)
- Eye movement (occulesics)
- Smells (olfactics)
Body Movement - Kinesics
• Gesture, facial expression, posture, head
nodding, orientation
• Emblems – gestures with specific cultural
meanings attached
• Illustrators reinforce words of speakers
• Adapters are unconscious gestures to relieve
stress or boredom
• Posture is heavily laden with value judgements
Closeness - Proxemics
• Study of how we use space and distance
• Includes seating arrangements, queuing
and territoriality
• Ideas of ‘personal space’, ‘invasion of
personal space’ and ‘comfort zones’
• Use of objects as ‘markers’ to indicate
ownership of space
Touching - Haptics
• Physical contact such as holding, hitting,
kissing, stroking, shaking hands, guiding
• Linked to proxemics
• Touch is very important in our early
development
• Many rules and taboos regulating physical
contact
Eye Movement - Occulesics
• Eye movement, length and direction of
gaze, changes in pupil size
• We are hypersensitive to information
imparted by eyes
• Can be argued eyes reveal the
truthfulness of what is being said
Smell - Olfactics
• Humans do not have a particularly well-
developed sense of smell compared with
other species
• Perfumes and deodorants send powerful
messages, as can the natural body odours
we try to suppress
• A rapidly growing industry has developed
around the use of smells
Complex Messages
• Rare for these non-verbal codes to operate in
isolation from one another, or separately from
language
• We create and perceive messages using signs
from a range of verbal and non-verbal codes
• To make this even more complex, these signs
and codes to not always pull in the same
direction
Communicative Competence
This idea refers to our ability to use language not just
accurately but appropriately. A competent communicator
will:
- Recognise and use different verbal and non-verbal styles

as they are suited to different social situations
- Recognise the subtle interplay of verbal and non-verbal
elements in communication
- Compensate for possible misinterpretations in
communication with others
The Functions of NVC
• Communicating feelings, emotions and
attitudes
• Replacing and regulating language
• Other Functions
Communicating Feelings, Emotions
and Attitudes
• NVC has a particularly important role in establishing
and maintaining relationships, otherwise known as an
affective function
• We rely more heavily on NVC in this area of personal
communication
• Looks, glances, changes in orientation allow others to
know what sort of relationship we want to have
• We use NVC to establish a mutually acceptable level
of intimacy
• Non-verbal leakage – messages
‘slipping out’ in spite of our attempts to
control them – ensures that high
credibility is given to non-verbal cues in
the area of feeling, emotion and attitude
• Puts a lot of power in the hands of a
skilled communicator
• Interpersonal attitudes can also be
indicated by body closeness and
orientation
Communicating Power & Status
• Within organisations such as the army,
positions within the hierarchy are clearly
signalled by uniforms, badges and
behavioural codes such as saluting
• In other organisations the non-verbal rules
of the pecking order may not be so overt,
but they are just as carefully observed
Peter Collett’s Handshake Theory
• The Bonecrusher
• The Limp Handshake
• The Firm Handshake
• The Limpet Handshake
• The Clammy Handshake
• The Reinforced Handshake
• The Relocated Handshake
• The Upper Handshake
The Limp Handshake may seem the most likely to offer evidence of
submissiveness, but this is not necessarily so, as Collett’s more detailed
explanation reveals:
“A limp handshake occurs when someone offers a hand that is totally

relaxed. It doesn’t exert any pressure on the other person’s hand and
it doesn’t contribute to the mutual production of the handshake. A
person who offers a limp handshake is someone who, in more senses
than one, doesn’t connect with the other person. Like their hand, they
remain passive and detached – they’re simply not focused on the
person they’re greeting. This often happens with people who are self-
important or who have to shake hands with a lot of people…Women
who want to cultivate an impression of languid femininity often
present a rather limp hand to the person they’re greeting. Strong
people often do the same, but in their case it’s to emphasise their
strength. It’s said that Mike Tyson offers a relaxed, almost tender
hand when he greets people outside the boxing ring – the complete
opposite to what happens inside the ring.”
(Collett, 2003)
Replacing & Regulating Language
• The role of NVC in inflecting the meaning
of a sentence can be explored by
‘performing’ the following sentence in
different ways
Well, I really enjoyed the party last night.

• Paralinguistic features, such as pitch, tone and
emphasis
• Throw in other non-verbal cues such as eyebrow
lifting or illustrators such as the use of the index
and first finger of both hands to indicate inverted
commas around a word
• Number of potential meanings rapidly increases
• Non-verbal cues also make a significant contribution of
conversation management
• Rules of turn taking allow us to have coherent
discussions without constantly talking over the top of
each other
• Paralanguage, gaze, eye contact and head movement
all play a part
• It’s a set of rules that takes some time to grasp
• Women typically have a more cooperative
conversational style whereas men tend to provide less
non-verbal feedback
Other Functions
• Many other uses to which we put our non-
verbal codes including:
- self expression
- group membership
- persuasion and rhetoric
- indicating role
Activity 1
Write and stage a brief scenario to show
NVC at work in one of the following areas:
- Power/status
- Emotion/feeling
- Attitude/Identity
Activity 2
Watch a scene from a television drama with
the sound turned down, paying particular
attention to non-verbal clues. Watch again
with sound. How much of a contribution
has the performance of non-verbal codes
made to the meaning of the scene and the
identity of the characters?
Activity 3
Look at the following situations. In each case try to identify a verbal
form, a verbal function, a non-verbal form and a non-verbal function
that could be associated with the situation.
A JUDGE addressing a member of the jury who is not paying attention
An upset and lost child approaches YOU in a busy supermarket
YOU want to get past the doorman and into a crowded pub
A MOTHER wants her teenage daughter to come home before 9 p.m.

Comparing verbal and non-verbal
communication
• non-verbal communication is learnt through
relations with others
• non-verbal behaviours can reinforce, substitute

for or contradict verbal behaviour
• we often trust our non-verbal behaviour to reveal

our true feelings
The universal use of non-verbal
communication
• there is some universality in non-verbal communication,
especially in facial expressions
• six basic emotions are communicated by facial

expressions in much the same way in most societies:
– happiness, sadness, disgust, fear, anger and surprise
• but what causes the non-verbal behaviours can vary
• there are also variations in the rules for non-verbal

behaviour
Non-verbal codes
• PROXEMICS
how people use personal space; to keep someone at the
right distance
– contact cultures and non-contact cultures
• KINESIC BEHAVIOUR
body posture, hand gestures, facial expressions and eye
contact
• CHRONEMICS
the use of time
– M-time (Monochronic) and P-time (Polychronic)
Non-verbal codes
• SILENCE
the use of silence in conversations
• HAPTICS
the use of touching
– high-touch cultures and low-touch cultures
• VOCAL CUES
rate, pitch, loudness, articulation, tone, accent,
pronunciation etc.
• ARTEFACTS
things, objects, decorations etc.
Unit II
Oral Communication
INTRODUCTION
• In most of the cases where immediate action is to be
taken, it is advisable to transmit a message orally to
save time.
• Oral communication also saves money.
• Speech is a powerful means of persuasion and control
and the executives often prefer to transmit messages
orally.
• The speaker can get an effective and immediate
feedback if the speech or oral statement given makes a
favorable impressing on the receiver or antagonizing
him, whether the receiver will acquiesce or protest, or
whether the receiver has clearly under stood his
meaning or is feeling perplexed or baffled, and he can
mould and adjust his message accordingly.
CHARACTERISTICS OF FACE TO
FACE EXCHANGE
• Face to Face to communication may seem to be
similar to Oral communication however; there are
certain situations which distinguishes the two.
• A conversation in a telephone is oral but it cannot
be called a face to face communication.
• In some cases face to face communication is not
a oral communication
ORAL STATEMENT
• An important prerequisite of effective oral communication
is that words should be pronounced clearly and correctly.
• When people take pleasure in talking then tend to over
communicate.
• Precision makes oral communication very effective.
Saying “Can you come to office early tomorrow?” is not
as good as “Can you come to office half an hour early
than the usual time?”
• Lack of Conviction causes lack of confidence. Conviction
comes from careful planning and thinking.
• Jumbled ideas create confusion, so an effective
statement is made only if the message delivered is
arranged in a logical sequence.
• The major problem with communication is the assumption that it
has been accomplished. To avoid this it is important to carefully
select the words to be used. In a oral communication it is advisable
to choose words familiar to the listener rather than words the
speaker is familiar about.
• Speaker should avoid hackneyed phrases and clichés like “What I
mean is?”, “Basically...”, “Do you follow?”. These words interrupt
the flow of speech. These phrases are used unconsciously &
conscious effort is to be taken to avoid it.
• Some speakers create a style to impress the audience which will
make it even worse. The most effective speech is that which is
correct and at the same time natural an unaffected. The speakers
should cutivate a pleasing tone and speak clearly and distinctly.
DELIVERING A ORAL STATEMENT
• There may be lot cases where it is

required to give a oral instruction to other
employees. It needs to be handled
carefully.
• Do not assume that the listener would have prior knowledge
about the subject. Start giving the instruction from the basic
details or an overview of the subject.
• Select the appropriate time to deliver the statement in such a
way that neither you nor the listeners are in a hurry and you
have plenty of time to explain it in detail if demanded.
• Organize the instruction that is to be given which would make
sense to the listeners.
• Use simple and clear language along with a pleasing tone.
• Do not provide any irrelevant or distracting details. Do not
over talk or over load with a lot of information confusing the
listeners.
• Watch for the expressions and gestures of the listeners which
is a immediate feedback and alter the style accordingly.
• Allow the listeners to clarify themselves if not clear.
• Repeat if there are any complicated instructions or make it
interactive so it reaches well.
• If necessary practice you oral statement in writing.
PUBLIC SPEAKING
• ESSETIALS OF PUBLIC SPEAKING
• CHARACTERISTICS OF PUBLIC SPEAKING
• Body language
• Speak with conviction
• Maintain eye contact
• Pause
• Humor
• Audio-visual aids
• Handouts
• STOP
• Written Copy
PREPARED AND EXTEMPORE SPEECH
• Adjudicators look for knowledge of the subject matter, sincerity in
presentation of material, skilful development of the theme, and effective use
of Plain English. Your speech should be prepared, and varied if necessary,
for the particular audience and setting in which it is to be delivered.
• Length of Speech
• Topic
• Speech Writing and Preparation
• Writing
• DELIVERING THE SPEECH
• Make Contact!
• Voice
• Accent
• Pronunciation
• Gesture and Movement
• Notes and Prompt Cards
PREPARING FOR INTERVIEW
1. As soon as you are invited to an interview, confirm with
the company that you can attend, or if you are unable to
keep the appointment, arrange with them a mutually
convenient time and date.
2. Find out as much as you can about the company, its
products and it services. If it is a local company this may
be quite easy. If not you may have to do your research
in the library / internet.
3. Read through a copy of your application to the company
to refresh your memory.
4. List questions you may wish to ask about the
company/job but never ask about money directly. Ask
only 1 or 2 or 3 maximum
5. Prepare your interview techniques. Rehearse positive
language and think of any awkward questions that may
be asked. Prepare your response and get someone to
give his or her opinion on how it comes across.
The nature of oral presentations
• Why some speakers perform badly?
– Misconception of the nature of oral communication
– Not connected to linguistic problems
• Oral communication is different from written

communication
– Receiver has no control on information flow [silence]
– No feedback monitoring successful comprehension
– Real danger of loosing contact with the audience
• Oral communication is a complement to written

communication
Focusing on a 15 min. contributed
talk in a conference.
Before the beginning
• Do your paperwork well before...
• In doubt: prepare, prepare, prepare
• Check your colours carefully if you don’t want bad
surprises
• Check carefully that your presentation works correctly in
the conference computer (use pack & go/package for
CD)
• Keep a backup
• Check that figures display correctly at the projector
resolution
• Dressing
– Always dress a little better than the audience
The beginning
• It’s normal to be a somewhat nervous/tense, but
so is the audience…
• The talk is for the audience
– Stand out in front of the audience without any physical
barrier
– Face the audience, look relaxed, unworried and
friendly
• even if you are close to panic (body communication &
pointers)
– Look to the audience in silence, building eye contact,
then talk to them
– The audience is curious and friendly towards you
– Can they hear you?
DEVELOPING ORAL SKILLS
• 1. Speech & Writing/Printing: a
comparison
• Speech : pitch, volume, tone, speed,
pauses, body movements, facial
expressions
• Writing/Printing: punctuation,
capitalization, spacing, margins, fonts
(continued)
• 2. Pronunciation of Words:
(a) vowel and consonant sounds
• (comparison of sounds with letters a-z);
The letter “a” in :
fat /æ/, father /a:/,
fate /eɪ/, about /ə/
Or the letters “th” in “thin” /ɵ/ & “then” /ð/.
Also notice
(b) word-stress: ‘language, communi’cation
(continued)
3. Pronunciation of Sentences:
intonation and rhythm
INTONATION: rising / (yes /)
falling \ (yes \)
combination \/ (yes \/)
Attributes of
good oral communication
• 1.Sounds and sound combinations
• 2. Stress
• 3. Rhythm
• 4. Intonation
• 5. Speed: pausing
• 6. Clarity of articulation
• 7. Voice modulation: volume & pitch variation
(avoiding “monotonous speech)
Unit II
Listening and Speaking

Skills
Principles for Designing Listening and
Speaking Techniques
(Brown, 1994)
• Techniques should cover the spectrum of

learner needs from language based focus on
accuracy to message-based focus on
interaction, meaning and fluency
“TO LISTEN CLOSELY AND REPLY
WELL IS THE HIGHEST PERFECTION
WE ARE ABLE TO ATTAIN IN THE ART
OF CONVERSATION”.
“LA ROCHEFOUCAULD”
CONVERSATION SKILLS
• WHEN TO SPEAK AND WHEN TO LISTEN
• HOW TO MOVE A CONVERSATION FROM THE
PAST TO THE PRESENT AND TO THE FUTURE
• WHY CONVERSATIONAL LINKING IS
NECESSARY
• HOW TO DISTINGUISH BETWEEN PARALLEL
AND SEQUENTIAL CONVERSATION
• HOW TO RAISE ENERGY LEVELS IN
DISCUSSIONS
• HOW TO MOVE BETWEEN PROBLEM-CENTRED
CONVERSATION AND SOLUTION-CENTRED
CONVERSATION
Listening Strategies
• Looking for key words
• looking for nonverbal cues to meaning
• predicting a speaker’s purpose by the
context of the spoken discourse
• associating information with one’s existing
cognitive
Speaking Strategies
• Asking for clarification

• Asking someone to repeat something
• Using fillers and conversation maintenance
cues
• Getting someone’s attention
• Using paraphrases for structures one can’t
produce
• Appealing for assistance
• Using formulaic expressions
• Using mime and one-verbal expression
TYPES OF SPOKEN
LANGUAGE (Nunan, 1991)
• Monologue (planned and unplanned)
– storytelling
– news broadcast
– readings (short stories, poems, etc.)
• Dialogue (Interpersonal and Transactional)
Types of Dialogues
• Scripted Dialogue
• Semi-Scripted
• Using Picture Cues to present scenario for
dialog
• Discourse Chain
Using Picture Cues
Discourse Chain
Son
Mother
send your son to the Tell mother you will go buy
store what she needs
Store Keeper
Greet the store keeper. Tell
her/him what you want to
buy, ask how much.
Tell what you have
and how much
Pay her and say goodbye.

Unit II
Written Communication:
Report Writing and
Presentation
Agenda
• Types of Reports
• How to Write Reports
• Computer Reports
• Anatomy of a Report
• Sales Proposals
• Future of Reports
How We Communicate
• CVs, Resumes
• Email, Web site, FAQs
• Letters, Newsletters, Brochures, Articles,
Catalogs
• Advertisements, Notice Board, Pamphlets,
Signs, Press Release
• Presentations, multimedia, talks
• Reports, Manuals, Proposals, Books
Which Reports?
Sales Reports
Inspection Reports
Annual Reports
Audit Reports
Feasibility Reports
Progress Reports
White Papers
Technical Writing Reports
• Proposals
• User Manuals
• Technical Manuals
• White Papers
Classification of Reports
• Formal Reports and Informal Reports
• Information Reports
• Analytical Reports
• Recommendation Reports
5 Steps to Report Writing
1. Define the problem
2. Gather the necessary information
3. Analyze the information
4. Organize the information
5. Write the report
Organizing Reports
• Comparison/contrast
• Problem-solution
• Elimination of alternatives
• General to particular
• Geographic or spatial
• Functional
• Chronological
Words, Words, Words
• UK English and US English
– International English and Indian English
• Denotation and Connotation
– Let me know when you’re free next week for a
meeting.
– Could you let me know what times you have free?
• Tone
– Terry is hung up on trivial details.
– Terry is meticulous and takes care of details that
others sometimes ignore.
Writing Style
• Brief writing style
– Omit needless words
– Combine sentences
– Rewrite
– Campus Jewelers’ main objective is to increase
sales. Specifically, the objective is to double sales
in the next five years by becoming a more
successful business.
– Campus Jewelers’ objective is to double sales in
the next five years.
Anatomy of a Report
• Cover Page
• Title Page
• Letter of Transmittal
• Table of Contents
• List of Illustrations
• Executive Summary
• Report Body
Report Components
• Title Page
– Name of report (all caps)
– Name, title, organization of receiver
– Author’s name, title, organization
– Date submitted
Report Components
• Letter of Transmittal
-Background
-Summarize conclusions and recommendations
-Minor problems. Thank those who helped.
-Additional research necessary
-Thank the reader. Offer to answer questions.
Report Components
• Table of Contents
– Show beginning page number where each
report heading appears
– Connect page numbers with leaders (spaced
dots)
Report Components
– One of most important parts of report
– Synopsis (overview) of report
– Concentrate on what management needs to know
– Summarizes
• Purpose
• Scope
• Methodology
• Findings
• Conclusions
• Recommendations
Report Components
– Organized same as report
– Style and tone same as report
– Avoid unexplained jargon/abbreviations
– Do not refer to figures/tables presented later
– Should not contain exhibits or footnotes
– Include headings/make skimmable
– Use transitional words
– Length should be generally 1/10 of whole report
Executive summaries should
be the last pieces of reports to
be written since they are the
most important sections of the
reports!
Report Components
• Introduction
– Explain problem motivating report
– Describe its background and significance
– Clarify scope and limitations of report
– Describe data sources, methods, key terms
– Close by previewing report’s organization
Report Components
• Body
– Discuss, analyze, interpret research findings
– Arrange findings in logical segments following
outline
– Use clear, descriptive headings/skimmable
Report Components
• Report Body
- Introduction
– Purpose and Scope;Limitations, Assumptions, and
Methods
-Background/History of the Problem
-Body
– Presents and interprets data
-Conclusions and Recommendations
-References or Works Cited
-Appendixes
– Interview transcripts, questionnaires, question tallies,
printouts, and previous reports
Report Components
• Conclusions
– Explain findings in relation to original problem
Report Components
• Recommendations
– Make recommendations on suggested action
to be taken
Report Components
• Appendix
– All items must be referred to in the text and
listed on the table of contents
– Items of interest to some, but not all, readers
• For example, data questionnaires or computer
printouts
Report Components
• References
– List all references in section called “Works
Cited” or “References”
– Include all text, online, and live sources
– Follow style manual for citing sources
Other Specifics on Report Writing
• Single- or double-spaced
• About 2500 words (not counting appendix)
• Tables of Contents will help you organize
and write report—write early!
• Headings of same level must be
consistent
– First, second, third levels
Headings
Same-level headings must be written consistently!
(For example)
Level 1: CENTERED UPPER-CASE
Level 2: Centered Upper-case and Lower-case
Level 3: Centered, Underlined, Upper-case and Lower-case
Level 4: Flush left, Underlined, Upper-case
and Lower-case
Level 5: Indented, underlined, lower-case paragraph heading
ending with a period.
Visual Aids
1. Introduce
2. Label/Number/Informative Title
3. Discuss
Sales Proposal
• Budget
• Objectives
• Strategy and Tactics
• Schedule
• Results
• Closing
Document Design
• Use no more than 5 fonts.
• Use no more than 5 colors.
• Use glossy paper.
• Use white space.
• Use templates.
• Use parallelism.
• Avoid double emphasis.
Future Reports
Proposals
• 250-page reports
• 90-minute oral presentation
• 50-page summary
Reports
• Multi-media
• Web
Unit III
Business Letters
WRITING SKILLS
• Effective business letters
• Effective business memos
REASONS FOR WRITING
BUSINESS LETTERS
We write business letters to
• Solicit business
• Respond to customer questions
• Negotiate purchases
• Deal with suppliers
RULES FOR WRITING
BUSINESS LETTERS
1. Key all formal correspondence.
2. Spell names correctly and have the correct address.
3. Always date your business correspondence.
4. Use names and titles appropriately.
5. Be direct and positive.
6. Be persuasive and specific.
7. Avoid using fancy language.
8. Be polite.
9. Use an appropriate closing.
10. Proofread for spelling and grammatical errors.
E-MAIL AND LETTER WRITING
1. LAYOUT: BLOCK STYLE

2. PARTS OF LETTER OR E-MAIL
3. LANGUAGE FUNCTIONS
4. STYLE
E-MAIL: THE BASICS
• To:
• From:
• Subject:
• Cc.
• Bcc:
• Attached:
• Signature:
LAYOUT
BLOCK STYLE
→ study “blocks of information” on the following
slide or in the book, p.38
1) sender’s address 2) date 3) reference

4) recipient 5) Dear… 6) subject
7) body 8) closing phrase (Yours…)
9) writer’s signature
1
M 3
A EITHER 2
4 OR
R 3
G
5
I
6
N
9
TRUE OR FALSE?
1. The name and the address of the

recipient (addressee) are at the top on
the left.
2. The date is on the left.
3. You have to write th, nd, rd or st after the day in
the date.
4. There is no punctuation (.) after the year.
5. The paragraphs start at the margin.
6. Between each paragraph there is a
dotted line.
7. Under the signature, there is the name
and the title of the writer.
8. There is a coma in the address or after
“Dear…” or after “Yours
faithfully/sincerely”.
9. Subject heading draws attention to what
the letter is about. It usually starts with
the abbreviation Re:_____ .
• The date: 12 June 2007
• Dear…/Yours…
Dear Sir or Madam a company
Dear Sir unknown man
Dear Madam unknown woman
Dear Mr Smith man you know
Dear Ms Smith woman you know
Dear Mrs Smith married woman
Dear Miss Smith unmarried woman
PARTS OF A LETTER
• beginning (opening)
• main message (more paragraphs
possible)
• ending (close)
PARTS OF LETTER OR E-MAIL
Dear Sir Dear

Dear…. or Mr/Ms/Miss/
Madam Mrs Smith
.
– OPENING . .
. .
– MAIN MESSAGE . .
– CLOSING .
Yours Yours
faithfully sincerely
Yours …
Beginning
• We are writing in connection with...
• We are writing to enquire about ...
• We are interested in…and we would like to
know…
• I was happy to see you last week at the fair.
• Thank you for your letter of February 20
concerning …
• Further to our telephone discussion …, we
would like to inform you that ...
• With reference to your enquiry about…
Ending
• I look forward to receiving your reply/order.
• I look forward to hearing from you soon.
• We look forward to seeing you soon.
• Please feel free to contact us if necessary.
• I hope that this information will help you.
• Please contact me if you need any further
information.
• Please feel free to contact me if you have any
further questions.
+
CLOSE
LANGUAGE FUNCTIONS
REFERRING
I am writing in connection with…

With reference to…
Further to…
With regard to..
GIVING GOOD/BAD NEWS
I am pleased to tell you that…

I am happy to inform you that…
I regret to tell you that…
I am sorry to inform you that…
SAYING WHAT YOU CAN/CANNOT DO
We are able to…

We are unable to…
GIVING REASONS
This is owing to…

This is due to…
This is as a result of…
This is because of strikes…

This is because of the fact that workers were
on strike
This is because workers were on strike.
APOLOGISING
We must apologise for -ing/noun

We are extremely sorry for –ing/noun
We are sorry that …
(REASON)
Please accept our apologies once again.

We hope that this has not caused you any
inconvenience.
With apologies once again.
REQUESTING INFORMATION / ACTION
Please could you…

We would be grateful if you could…
We would appreciate it if you could…
Please could you give us some details
about…
We would like to know about /if…
In particular, we are interested in…
MAKING A COMPLAINT
• Unfortunately, we have not yet received
• We must insist that you pay …
• Unless we hear from you, we will take
legal action…
REPLYING TO COMPLAINTS
ACCEPT:apologize,explain,propose action,
apologize again
REFUSE:say you’re sorry, say why you
refuse, offer a solution (optional)
MAKING A POINT
I would like to draw your attention to

(the fact that)…
I should like to point out that…
STYLE
Polite tone → better response

Principles of business letter writing
1 ） The first principle is clearness
In order to achieve that you should not

convey more than one idea in a sentence.
You should not introduce more than one
topic in a paragraph. You should not deal
with more than one matter in a letter.
2 ） The second principle is conciseness
Try to make your message brief and to

the point. Avoid using long words and
sentences. Use daily expressions to
replace jargons. Express yourself in an
orderly and logical way. A good business
letter should be natural, human and easy
to read.
Here are some examples:
Instead of saying: We should be obliged if
you could contact Mr Smith at an early date.
You say: Please contact Mr Smith soon.
Instead of saying: With reference to your

Order 319, the goods were dispatched on
the 13 of this month.
You say: We sent your Order 319 on 13
April.
3) The third principle is correctness
You have to make sure that both the

language and facts are correct. In terms of
language, you should make sure that you
make no grammatical mistakes. Pay
attention to punctuation for it will affect the
meaning of the sentence
Our shop, in Canada, was destroyed by fire.
From this sentence, we know that the writer has

only one shop.
Our shop in Canada was destroyed by fire.
Here we know that the writer has more than one

shop.
You should also make sure that there are no

typing mistakes. Pay special attention to numbers,
such as quantity, price and so on.
4)The last principle is courtesy:
This is more than politeness. A good

business letter should be positive, friendly
and sincere.
Instead of saying: I am in receipt of

your order for 1,000 tons of Black Tea.
You say: Thank you for your order for
1,000 tons of Black Tea.
The “You approach”
Adopt “you approach” when you convey
a good news.
Instead of saying: We shall be able to

offer you free customer service for your
newly purchased refrigerator for 3 years.
You say: You will be pleased to hear that
you will soon be able to have a free
customer service for your newly purchased
refrigerator for 3 years.
The “You approach”
Avoid using “you approach” when
conveying bad news. In this situation, you
have to handle it tactfully.
Instead of saying: ‘Your letter is not

clear at all. I cannot understand it.’
You say: ‘If I understand your letter
correctly….’
How to learn this course
• First, you need to have a good command of English.
• Then, pay attention to the special terms in this
course.
• The best way to learn it is to read more and
write more.
• In this way you will have a better understanding
of what you have learned and be able to use them.
It is a good idea to recite some letters. It will help
you a lot when you write business letters yourself.
Layout of the business letter
• Full-blocked layout style,
• Blocked layout style and,
• Semi-blocked layout style are commonly
used.
Full-blocked layout style
The full-blocked layout style has no indentation.
Everything is ranged left. There is no punctuation in
the address and after the salutation and the
complimentary close.
Use single space within the paragraph. Use double
spaces between paragraphs.
If you have quotations or a list of something, you
should start a new paragraph, with 5-space
indentations on the left. Mark this part out by leaving
one line space between this paragraph and the rest
of the letter.
This style is widely used today because it is easy
to type and therefore efficient.
This is similar to the Full-blocked
layout style but the date is placed
on the right. The Subject is
centered. The complimentary close
and the signature start from the
middle.
Structure
• 1) Letterhead
• 2) Date
• 3) Inside name and address
• 4) The salutation
• 5) Subject heading or caption
• 6) The body of the letter
• 7) Complimentary close
• 8) Signature
• 9) Miscellaneous matters
1) The letterhead
Companies usually have paper with
printed letterhead, which includes the
company’s name, address, postcode,
telephone number, telex number, fax
number, email address etc. The printed
letterhead is usually centered. Here I’d like
to remind you that the address in the
letterhead is the address of the sender not
the recipient. This is important when you
have to write the letterhead yourself.
2)The date
A. The date should be placed two lines

below the letterhead. For the full-blocked
style, you put it on the left. For the blocked
or semi-blocked you put it on the right.
B. The date should be typed in full and

not abbreviated
September , not Sept.
October, not Oct.
C. Do not give the dates in figures for
they may cause confusion. For the date,
use 1, 2, 3, 4.
D. Here are the recommended forms.

Stick to one form once you have chosen it.
There is no comma between the month
and the year in British English.
3 April 2000 (British English.)
April 3, 2000 (American English
3) The inside name and address.
This is the name and address of the recipient. It is

typed at the left-hand margin two lines below the
date.
Courtesy titles are used in business

correspondence, such as Mr., Mrs. and Miss. If you
do not know whether a lady is married or not, use
Ms. All these are followed by family names. If you do
not know whether the recipient is a man or a woman,
use Dear Madam or Sir. They are not followed by
family names.
If you know the appropriate departmental
head, you’d better address the letter to him
or her, by his official title not by his or her
name. Thus a letter concerning purchasing
should be addressed to:
The Sales Manager,
the recipient’s address.
Dear Sir,
When the recipient holds a special title, such
as Doctor, Professor, address him/her by this
title:
Prof. Smith.
Dr. James White / James White, MD
But not Dr. James White, MD
4). The salutation
The salutation is the polite greeting with

which a letter begins. The expression you
use depends on your relationship with the
recipient. You may use formal salutation if
you write to a company and do not know
who to address to. In this case you use
Dear Sirs, and in America people like to use
Gentlemen.
If you know the person you are writing
to, you may use informal salutation. Dear
Mr. Green,
Formal:
Dear Sir
Dear Madam
Dear Sirs
Gentlemen
Informal:
Dear Mr Green
Dear Mrs Green
Dear Miss Green
Dear Ms Green
If you do not know whether a man or a
woman will read your letter, you may write
Dear Madam or Sir/Dear Sir or Madam:
Dear Madam or Sir
Dear Sir or Madam
You cannot use Sir/Sirs alone. You have to

use dear to go with Sir/Sirs but Gentlemen
is used alone and cannot be used in the
singular. The salutation is two lines below
the inside address without any indentation.
5). The subject heading or caption
The subject heading is often placed one

line below the salutation. It can be put on
the left or in the middle depending on
whether the letter is full-blocked, blocked or
semi-blocked. This is used to call reader’s
attention to the topic of the letter, therefore
it is a good idea to underline it or make it in
boldface letters.
You can write the subject in the
following ways:
A: Underline your subject like
this:
Dear Dr. Jones,
Re: Applying for a position

Subject: Applying for a position
B: Make your subject in
boldface letters
Dear Dr. Jones,
Re: Applying for a position

Subject: Applying for a position
C: Omit the words Re and
Subject:
Dear Dr. Jones,
Applying for a position

6) The body of the letter
You may use the first person singular: I

have received your application and shall be
bringing it before the Board for consideration
this week.
You may also use the first person plural:
We have received your application and shall
be considering it at a board meeting this
week.
You can even use the impersonal passive:
Your application has been received and will
be considered by the Board this week.
You should plan you letter carefully.
If you are replying a letter, begin your
letter by referring to the previous
correspondence.
If this is the first time to contact, you may
begin by introducing yourself and then state
the purpose of your writing.
If you have several matters to talk about,
especially if such matters are not dealt with
in the same department of the company, do
not talk about them in one letter.
Important Questions
What is the purpose of the letter?
What is your expectation?
What language should you use to
achieve your purpose?
Is this the first time you discuss the
matter or you have talked about it
before?
Do you have all the information you
need? What is your company’s policy
concerning the matter you are dealing
with?
If a second page is necessary, do not write
only the signature on the second page. You
should try to remove part of the letter from
the first page to the second by leaving more
room between the letter head and the date ;
between the date and the inside address;
and leave more room for the hand written
signature. Write “to be continued” on the
bottom right hand side of the first page .
The second page should be written on a blank
paper with the same kind of texture and the color
as the first page. Write the page number, name of
the recipient and the date and, like this:
Page 2
The Universal Trading Co., February 10, 2000
or
Mr. James Smith
Page 2
March 2, 2000
When writing a letter, leave enough space for both

the left and the right margins, each having 30---34
mm.
7). The complimentary close
The complimentary close is merely a

polite way of ending a letter. The expression
used must suit the occasion and match the
salutation.
Formal:
Dear Sir(s) Yours faithfully
Gentlemen Truly yours
Less formal:
Dear Mr. Jones Yours sincerely
8). The signature
A letter should be signed by hand in ink.

As many hand-written signatures are
illegible, the name of the signer is usually
typed below the signature and followed by
his job title or position. Leave 3 lines for a
handwritten signature.
Letters predominantly in the first person
singular are signed by the name of the
writer.
Letters in the first person plural or
impersonal passive are usually signed with
the name of the firm. Below the name of the
firm is the writer’s name. Only the
person who can represent the company is
able to sign on behalf of the company. If
that person is not available, then the person
who is given the authority to sign can sign
for the company. In this case you use pp or
per pro, or you may use ‘for’.
For a person who has been given the
authority to sign.
Yours faithfully
for/pp The Overseas Co. Ltd
(Signature)
W. Black
Marketing director
b. For a person who has the
authority to represent the
company to sign.
Yours sincerely,
(Signature)
B Davis
Managing Director
The Overseas Co. Ltd
c. The letter is signed by a person in
his official capacity to indicate the
exact degree of authority.
Yours sincerely,
The Overseas Co. Ltd
(Signature)
Philip Wang
The Assistant Sales Manager
9). Miscellaneous matters
1 ） Carbon copy
In this case you write cc below the
signature at the left margin. CC is the
abbreviation of carbon copy.
Yours faithfully
for The Overseas Co. Ltd
(Signature)
W. Black
Marketing director
c.c. Mr. J. Cooper

2)Enclosure
If you have enclosure, it is placed below
the carbon copy. Enclosure can be
abbreviated as Enc.
cc Mr. J. Cooper
2 Invoices enclosed
or
3 Enc./Enclosures 3
or
Enclosure: 1 B/Lading
3)Postscript
Do not use postscript unless you want
to add a personal touch to your letter. It is
placed one line below the enclosure. In
most cases, postscript is regarded as a
sign of poor planning. If it is necessary
write in ink like this:
P.S. See you at the Exhibition at the
Hillside Plaza on January 10.
4)Reference number
A firm or company usually assigns a
reference to correspondence, and this is
intended for quotation in the reply. This
ensures that the reply goes to the right
man, or in a large organization may be the
key to a complicated filing system.
Companies have different ways to form
their reference numbers. These numbers
should be quoted in the letters of reply.
They are usually placed on the top left-hand
side opposite the date.
How to write envelops:
Mr. Johnson Green

Public Commerce Information Service
Bldg.14, Part 3Fangxingyuan,
Fangzhuang, Beijing,
China
Mr. Bill White
B. Wallace &. Co.

Registered 236 St. Louis Street
New York 10202, N.Y.
USA
The Category of Business Letters
• Confidential
• Registered
• Private
• Express
• Sample Post
• Parcel Post
Sometimes you may see an envelope with
c/o, which means ‘care of’.
Mr. Charles Wood

c/o The Sales Manager
Percy Astins & Co Ltd
12 King’s Avenue
RICHMOND
Surrey TW6 ISJ
Britain
MEMORANDA
A memorandum is a short written form of

business communication that has a set
format.
• Who it’s for
• Who it’s from
• Date
• Subject
INTEROFFICE MEMO
From one person in a company to

another. They can be…
• Hand-delivered
• E-mailed
• Sent via interoffice mail
• Faxed
Resume
• What is it? Intro

• What is its purpose? Gatekeeper
• Target it to your job objective
• Generally one page
• How and where you place information
indicates its relative importance
Resume writing
• Write it yourself
• Make it error-free:
Proofread, Proofread!!!
• Make it look good
• Simple is best
• Be brief, be relevant
• Be honest
• Be positive
• Be specific
• Update it as needed
Do not include:
• Personal info
• Salary history
• Hobbies
• Names of references
• High school IF you are in
college or have a college
degree
• Philosophy statement [of
life, work, etc.]
Styles of Resumes:
• Chronological
• Functional
• Combination
Chronological
• Information organized in reverse order of occurrence
• Pros:
– most employers prefer this format
– showcases steady work record, steady growth &
promotion
• Cons:
– bad news for those who have gaps in their work
history or for new grads who don’t have much
experience
– doesn’t help employer visualize the future
Functional
• Information is organized by functions or skills
related to the job being sought
– for example: Marketing, Organizational
skills, Supervisory skills,
Problem-solving
Functional Resume, con’t
• Pros:
– ideal for presenting transferable skills [skills that can
move from one occupation to another]
– downplays irrelevant jobs, spotty work history,
career reversals
– helpful when your most impressive skills came from
volunteer work
– makes for interesting presentation
• Cons:
– most employers don’t like this format
– unless handled well, can be confusing to read
– difficult to write well
Combination Resume
• Takes the best from both chronological &
functional
• Sells what you can do & shows your work
history to prove it
Resume Structure:
• Name, Address, day time Phone number,
Email
• Objective [simple job title - not your goals]
• Skills summary
• Education & training
• Employment history
• Portfolio / References
• Extra copies of your
RESUME
• List of
PROFESSIONAL
REFERENCES
• Complete WORK
HISTORY
• Examples of your
BEST WORK
• PAD & PEN
• Be specific as to how your training or skills
learned in any p/t or volunteer job will help you
do a good job for your prospective employer
• Take credit for the duties
and responsibilities you
performed on your past
jobs
• References - ask
their permission
before using
their names
Electronic & Scannable Resumes
Now you need to know how to plan & write your
resume both for the computer and for the human
eye
•Need to focus on nouns and key words
•Scanners differ in their capabilities

Rules for Scanned resumes:
• Sans serif typefaces that scan well:
Helvetica, Futura, Univers, Optima, ITC
Avante Garde Gothic
• Serif fonts that scan well: Times, New

Century Schoolbook, ITC Bookman,
Palatino, Courier
Scannable resumes con’t
• * Between 11 - 14 point size type

• Boldface is usually okay; when in doubt,
check with prospective employer
• Asterisks are okay
• Avoid italic, script, * underlining
• Avoid graphics & shading
• * Keep horizontal & vertical lines away
from text
• Omit parentheses & brackets, especially

around phone numbers
• * Lots of white space
• Laser printer
• * Always send originals
• * Minimize abbreviations; when in doubt,
spell it out
• * Use traditional resume structure
• * White, 8 1/2” by 11” paper printed on one

side only
• Your name should always be the first text
on the resume
• * No staples
• Do not fold resume; if it must be folded,
make sure fold is not along a line of text
Additional tips for resumes:
• Update as often as necessary
• Join a professional society & put that
membership on your resume
• Keep the most important data
& keywords at the top of
your resume
90 second self-marketing ad
• Intro: who you are &
what you want from
your target
• Your training & skills
• Your “hook”
• How you will follow up
• The closing
• PRACTICE!!
Types of Correspondence for
JOBS
• Letter of Application – written in response
to a specific job within an organization which may
have been advertised or identified through
networking
• Letter of Inquiry – written to explore
employment opportunities with an organization
that interests you
• Thank you letter – used to thank the
interviewer for his/her time and the opportunity
to interview; should be sent within 48 hours of
the interview
• Letter of Acceptance – written to express
your enthusiasm about joining the organization
and to confirm specific terms and conditions of
your employment (start date, salary, benefits,
bonus, negotiated benefits)
• Letter of Refusal – used to decline a job
offer; be appreciative and polite and thank the
employer for the offer
Letter of Application
• Paragraph 1
Hook the reader with creativity. State the reason for the
letter. Identify the specific position you are applying for and
how you heard of the position. Mention information about
the company or the industry. Try to make the connection
as personable as possible.
• Paragraph 2
Discuss your strongest qualifications that match the
position requirements. Provide evidence of related
experiences and accomplishments. Explain why you are
interested in working for the employer. Refer to your
enclosed resume.
• Paragraph 3
(Optional) Convince the employer that you have
the personal qualities and motivation to succeed.
Sell yourself.
• Paragraph 4
Request an interview and indicate how and when
you can be contacted. You can also state that
you will call on a specific date to arrange a
convenient interview time. Thank the reader for
his/her consideration. Be sure to provide your
phone number and email address.
Letter of Inquiry
• Paragraph 1
Hook the reader with creativity. State the reason for the
letter. Identify the specific position or the type of work
you are applying for. Mention information about the
company or the industry. Try to make the connection as
personable as possible. Mention past conversations or
mutual acquaintances.
• Paragraph 2
Highlight your strongest qualifications. Provide evidence
of related experiences and accomplishments. Explain why
you are interested in working for the employer. Target the
employers needs. Refer to specific aspects of the
organization’s work that interest you.
• Paragraph 3
(Optional) Convince the employer that you have
the personal qualities and motivation to succeed.
Sell yourself.
• Paragraph 4
Request an interview and indicate how and when
you can be contacted. You can also state that you
will call on a specific date to arrange a convenient
interview time. Thank the reader for his/her
consideration. Be sure to provide your phone
number.
Thank You Letter
• Paragraph 1
Thank the interviewer for his/her time. Express your
enthusiasm in the employer and the position.
• Paragraph 2
Re-emphasize your strongest qualifications. Recall aspects
of the interview that were helpful or enlightening. Draw
attention to the good match between your qualifications
and the job requirements. Restate what you can
contribute if offered the position.
• Paragraph 3
Reiterate your interest in the position. Give a phone
number where you can be reached.
Job Offer Acceptance Letter
• Express your pleasure at receiving the
offer and your enthusiasm about joining
the organization
• Confirm terms and conditions of your
employment – salary, starting date,
benefits, etc.
• Request a written confirmation of the offer
Job Offer Decline Letter
• Thanks the employer for the offer and the
opportunity to interview
• State that your decision is based on
careful consideration of your current
interests and goals
• Be cordial, appreciative and polite
• Be brief and direct
• Goal is to maintain goodwill
Email Correspondence
• Must be in a different tone – a professional, businesslike
tone
• Necessary to use an appropriate subject header
• Address recipient as Mr., Ms., or Mrs. and spell recipient’s
name correctly
• Be brief
• Never use slang or symbols - :) , LOL, etc.
• Avoid wallpapers, multicolored backgrounds, and strange
fonts
• End with your full name
• Proofread and check for spelling errors
• Cut and paste application letter and resume in message;
never send attachments unless asked to do so
Successful Correspondence
Tips
• Address letters to an individual; include correct title
• Again be brief – one page
• Discuss your qualifications and meeting the needs of
the employer – work-centered and employer-centered,
not self-centered
• Customize each letter; no form letters
• Keep the reader in mind
• Use quality paper and envelopes for hard copies
• Include work experiences where appropriate
• Thank the reader for their consideration
• Proofread, checking for spelling and grammar errors
Cover Letter
• Every sent resume must have cover
letter
• Purpose?
• Address letter to a person
• Know your target’s needs
Cover letter structure
• 1st para - purpose of letter; identify job
title; mention specific info about company
• 2nd para - describe professional &
academic qualifications
• 3rd- continue; why you should be
considered; expand on resume
• 4th - ask for interview
• closing
Cover letters, con’t
• Do not discuss salary, unless required
• No negatives
• Action/key words
• Cite work-related accomplishments
• Highlight personal attributes
Business Proposal Letters
Why is it important?
If you plan to be a consultant or run your
own business, written proposals may be one
of your most important tools for bringing in
business. And, if you work for a
government agency, nonprofit organization,
or a large corporation, the proposal can be
a valuable tool for initiating projects that
benefit the organization or you the
employee-proposer (and usually both).
What is a Proposal?
A proposal is a document that request
support-usually money- for work a
proposer wants to do. what makes a
proposal a proposal is that it asks the
audience to approve, fund, or grant
permission to do the proposed project.
Types of proposals
• Internal proposal: If you write a proposal to someone within your
organization, it is an internal proposal. With internal proposals, you
may not have to include certain sections (such as qualifications), or
you may not have to include as much information in them.
• External proposal: is one written from one separate, independent
organization or individual to another such entity.
• Solicited proposal: If a proposal is solicited, the recipient of the
proposal in some way requested the proposal. Typically, a company
will send out requests for proposals (public announcements
requesting proposals for a specific project ) through the mail or
publish them in some news source.
• Unsolicited proposals: are those in which the recipient has not
requested proposals. With unsolicited proposals, you sometimes must
convince the recipient that a problem or need exists before you can
begin the main part of the proposal.
Things to remember when writing a
proposal:
• The proposer has a particular interests and goals, and that's why
he/she writes the proposal.
• The recipient of the proposal, be it an organization, a person, or a
group, has its own interests and goals which may or may not
coincide with those of the proposer.
• So, the proposal should be convincing to the potential funder, and
it should show that the proposed activity will be a good
investment.
• This is especially important when there is a competition between
you and other proposers.
• Always make sure that your proposal meets the expectations of the
funder.
Common Sections in Proposals
• The general outline of the proposal should be
adapted and modified according to the needs
of the readers and the demand of the topic
proposed. For example, long complicated
proposals might contain all the following
sections. In contrast, shorter or simpler
proposals might contain only some of the
sections or the main ones.
Title page
 Specific formats for title pages vary from one proposal to
another but most include the following:
The title of the proposal ( as short as informative as possible)
A reference number for the proposal
The name of the potential funder ( the recipient of the proposal)
The proposal's date of submission
The signature of the project director and responsible administrator(s ) in
the proposer`s institution or company
Abstract
• The Abstract is a very important part of the proposal because
it provides a short overview and summary of the entire
proposal.
• The Abstract of the proposal is short, often 200 words or less.
• In a short proposal addressed to someone within the writer's
institution, the Abstract may be located on the title page.
• In a long proposal, the Abstract will usually occupy a page by
itself following the Title page.
• The Abstract should briefly define the problem and its
importance, the objectives of the project, the method of
evaluation, and the potential impact of the project.
Table of contents
• The table of contents lists the sections and
subsections of the proposal and their page
numbers.
 Introduction
Plan the introduction to your proposal carefully. Make
sure it does all of the following things (but not
necessarily in this order) that apply to your particular
proposal:
– Indicate that the document to follow is a proposal.
– Refer to some previous contact with the recipient of the
proposal or to your source of information about the project.
– Find one brief motivating statement that will encourage the
recipient to read on and to consider doing the project.
– Give an overview of the contents of the proposal.
 Background
Often occurring just after the introduction. The background
section discusses what has brought about the need for the
project—what problem, what opportunity there is for
improving things, what the basic situation is.
It's true that the audience of the proposal may know the
problem very well, in which case this section might not be
needed. Writing the background section still might be useful,
however, in demonstrating your particular view of the problem.
And, if the proposal is unsolicited, a background section is
almost a requirement—you will probably need to convince the
audience that the problem or opportunity exists and that it
should be addressed.
 Benefits and feasibility of the
proposed project
Most proposals discuss the advantages or
benefits of doing the proposed project. This
acts as an argument in favor of approving the
project. Also, some proposals discuss the
likelihood of the project's success. In the
unsolicited proposal, this section is particularly
important.
 Description of the proposed work
(results of the project):
Most proposals must describe the finished
product of the proposed project. In this course,
that means describing the written document
you propose to write, its audience and
purpose; providing an outline; and discussing
such things as its length, graphics, and so on.
Method, procedure, theory
• In most proposals, you'll want to explain how you'll
go about doing the proposed work, if approved to do
it. This acts as an additional persuasive element; it
shows the audience you have a sound, well-thought-
out approach to the project. Also, it serves as the
other form of background some proposals need.
Remember that the background section (the one
discussed above) focused on the problem or need that
brings about the proposal. However, in this section,
you discuss the technical background relating to the
procedures or technology you plan to use in the
proposed work.
Schedule
• Most proposals contain a section that shows
not only the projected completion date but also
key milestones for the project. If you are doing
a large project spreading over many months,
the timeline would also show dates on which
you would deliver progress reports. And if you
can't cite specific dates, cite amounts of time
or time spans for each phase of the project.
Qualifications
• Most proposals contain a summary of the
proposing individual's or organization's
qualifications to do the proposed work. It's like
a mini-resume contained in the proposal. The
proposal audience uses it to decide whether
you are suited for the project. Therefore, this
section lists work experience, similar projects,
references, training, and education that shows
familiarity with the project.
Costs, resources required
• Most proposals also contain a section detailing the
costs of the project, whether internal or external. With
external projects, you may need to list your hourly
rates, projected hours, costs of equipment and
supplies, and so forth, and then calculate the total cost
of the complete project. With internal projects, there
probably won't be a fee, but you should still list the
project costs: for example, hours you will need to
complete the project, equipment and supplies you'll
be using, assistance from other people in the
organization, and so on.
Conclusions
• The final paragraph or section of the proposal
should bring readers back to a focus on the
positive aspects of the project (you've just
showed them the costs). In the final section,
you can end by urging them to get in touch to
work out the details of the project, to remind
them of the benefits of doing the project, and
maybe to put in one last plug for you or your
organization as the right choice for the project.
Appendices
• Appendices (supplementary material that is collected
and appended at the end of a proposal)should be
devoted to those aspects of your project that are of
secondary interest to the reader. Begin by assuming
that the reader will only have a short time to read your
proposal and it will only be the main body of your
proposal (not the Appendices). Then, assume that you
have gotten the attention of the reader who would now
like some additional information. This is the purpose of
the Appendices.
Organization of Proposals
• As for the organization of the content of a proposal, remember that it is essentially a
sales, or promotional kind of thing. Here are the basic steps it goes through:
• You introduce the proposal, telling the readers its purpose and contents.
• You present the background—the problem, opportunity, or situation that brings about
the proposed project. Get the reader concerned about the problem, excited about the
opportunity, or interested in the situation in some way.
• State what you propose to do about the problem, how you plan to help the readers take
advantage of the opportunity, how you intend to help them with the situation.
• Discuss the benefits of doing the proposed project, the advantages that come from
approving it.
• Describe exactly what the completed project would consist of, what it would look like,
how it would work—describe the results of the project.
• Discuss the method and theory or approach behind that method—enable readers to
understand how you'll go about the proposed work.
• Provide a schedule, including major milestones or checkpoints in the project.
• Briefly list your qualifications for the project; provide a mini-resume of the background
you have that makes you right for the project.
• Now (and only now), list the costs of the project, the resources you'll need to do the
project.
• Conclude with a review of the benefits of doing the project (in case the shock from the
costs section was too much), and urge the audience to get in touch or to accept the
proposal.
Format of Proposals
• You have the following options for the format
and packaging of your proposal. It does not
matter which you use as long as you use the
memorandum format for internal proposals
and the business-letter format for external
proposals
1. Cover letter with separate proposal:
In this format, you write a brief "cover" letter
and attach the proposal proper after it. The
cover letter briefly announces that a proposal
follows and outlines the contents of it. In
fact, the contents of the cover letter are pretty
much the same as the introduction.
2. Cover memo with separate proposal: In this format,
you write a brief "cover" memo and attach the
proposal proper after it. The cover memo briefly
announces that a proposal follows and outlines the
contents of it. In fact, the contents of the cover memo
are pretty much the same as the introduction. The
proposal proper that repeats much of what's in the
cover memo. This is because the memo may get
detached from the proposal or the reader may not
even bother to look at the memo and just dive right
into the proposal itself.
3. Business-letter proposal: In this format, you put
the entire proposal within a standard business
letter. You include headings and other special
formatting elements as if it were a report. (This format
is illustrated in the left portion of the illustration below)
4. Memo proposal: In this format, you put the entire
proposal within a standard office memorandum.
You include headings and other special formatting
elements as if it were a report. This format is illustrated in the
right portion of the illustration below)
Check List for your Proposal
As you reread and revise your proposal, watch out for problems such as the
following:
• Make sure you use the right format. Remember, the memo format is for
internal proposals; the business-letter format is for proposals written from
one external organization to another. (Whether you use a cover memo or
cover letter is your choice.)
• Write a good introduction—in it, state that this is a proposal, and provide an
overview of the contents of the proposal.
• Make sure to identify exactly what you are proposing to do.
• Make sure that a report—a written document—is somehow involved in the
project you are proposing to do. Remember that in this course we are trying
to do two things: write a proposal and plan a term-report project.
• Make sure the sections are in a logical, natural order. For example, don't hit
the audience with schedules and costs before you've gotten them interested
in the project.
• Break out the costs section into specifics; include hourly rates and other
such details. Don't just hit them with a whopping big final cost.
• For internal projects, don't omit the section on costs and qualifications: there
will be costs, just not direct ones. For example, how much time will you
need, will there be printing, binding costs? Include your qualifications—
imagine your proposal will go to somebody in the organization who doesn't
know you.
Key Points for a Business Proposal
• Provide an overview of the business proposals,
including specific recommendations and the total
expense to the reader.
• Provide a detailed cost analysis when possible
or appropriate. This will allow the reader to
evaluate each cost factor as a part of the total
package.
• To add authority and credence to your proposal
provide the reader with supporting facts and
figures. These can include examples, survey
results, and case studies.
Sample Proposal Letter 1
Dear Mr. Frank:
How would you like to cut your printing costs by more than 40 percent
per month? Give us a few minutes of your time and we’ll show you
how.
We’ll review every facet of your current system and analyze its
strengths and weaknesses. We’ll look at a comparison of costs for
other businesses of your size and provide a comprehensive report of
short and long-term actions that will generate substantial savings for
your company.
The enclosed proposal outlines the details of what we’ll do and how
successful we’ve been at doing this for other businesses. In fact, we
guarantee you’ll save no less than 10 percent per year savings as a
result of our efforts.
I’ll call after you’ve had a chance to review our proposal.
Sincerely,
Sample Proposal Letter 2
Dear Mr Bruno:
I enjoyed speaking with you the other day. Enclosed please find a preliminary proposal
for Debt Collection for Mafia Services.
I believe this includes all specifications, options and terms we discussed. If not, please
let me know as soon as possible so we may revise the proposal to meet your needs.
If all is in order, let us know how and when you wish to proceed. As noted previously,
we can arrange a lease with low monthly payments designed to stay within your
operating budget. As always the system is available for purchase.
While I understand this is a major undertaking for Mafia Services, I would advise you
time is of the essence. Several of our suppliers have announced price increases for
the fall. Unfortunately, as their prices increase, so do ours.
The prices included with this proposal are valid for 90 days from the time of receipt.
Please call me if you have any questions or require additional information.
Sincerely,
Enclosures
Sample Proposal
Month Date, Year
PROPOSAL
We will prepare N books for publication by you, combining materials from X, Y, and Z into a
new series targeting the RR market. The cost to produce this new series of books will be:
$$$ (also written as text)
Payments will be made on the following schedule:

$$$ upon acceptance on this proposal. (Comment: This amount equals one-third to one-half
the total fee.)
$$$ upon delivery of each book.
$$$ upon delivery of the final book.
Checks will be made payable to (Contractor). We are able to start work on this project
immediately upon acceptance of this proposal and will deliver the materials on the following
schedule. All dates are approximate and are contingent upon prompt approval from you on
our submission of chapter and book outlines.
Book 1 Title Date to be delivered
Book 2 etc.
In order to meet your deadlines and the above delivery schedule, this proposal must be
accepted on or before Month Date, Year. A signed faxed copy will be sufficient authority to
begin the work with a signed hard copy to follow.
Contractor:.........................Client's Name __________________...... _________________

name...................................name of person
Tax ID #:............................Title:
Address:.............................Address:
Date:...................................Date:
(Date:).................................(Date:)
Unit IV
Interpersonal and Group

Communication : Decision
making and Problem solving
Decision Making and Problem Solving
• Problem solving is concerned with
overcoming obstacles in the path
toward an objective.
• Problem solving may or may not require
action.
• A decision is an act requiring judgment
that is translated into action.
Decision Making and Problem Solving
(cont’d)
• Decision making is much more

comprehensive than problem solving.
• The terms are interrelated, but not
interchangeable.
The Significance of Decision Making
• Decision making is the one truly distinctive
characteristic of managers.
• Decisions made by top managers commit the total
organization toward particular courses of action.
• Decisions made by lower levels of management
implement the strategic decisions of top managers in
the operating areas of the organization.
• Decisions invariably involve organizational change and
the commitment of scarce resources.
The Scope of Decision Making
• Individual decision making

• Group decision making
• Organizational decision making
• Metaorganizational decision making
The Scope of Decision Making
Decisional Inputs Metaorganization
(Objectives,
information, Organization
resources,
energy) Interactional
Group Levels
Individual
Permeable Decisional
Boundaries Outputs
(Actions
transactions,
outcomes)
External Environment
Copyright © 1999 Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1 - 328
Decision Making and Control
• Decision Making
• How to Make Good
Decisions
• Problem Solving
• Building Decision
Making Skills
• Controlling
Elements in Managerial Decisions
• Decision: A conscious choice among
alternative courses of action.
• Therefore the 3 elements are:
– A conscious choice among alternatives
– A specific purpose
– A course of action
Approaches to Decision Making
• Rational (Logical Approach)

• Intuitive Approach
• Unable to decide (Indecisive
Approach)
• Impulsive Approach
A Simple Version of Decision Making
(The Logical Approach)
• Define the problem (conditions
and limitations) and the set of
objectives
• Analyze the problem: fact
finding
• Develop alternative solutions:
brainstorming
• Decide on the best solution
• Convert the decision into action
• Follow up
Pattern of Problem Solving
• Describe the problem
• Search out the cause, get
the facts
• Define the real problem and
set objectives
• Develop alternative solutions
• Decide on the best solution
• Implement the decision
• Follow up
Participative Problem Solving
• Argument for Group Decision Making :
– You get more info. And expertise relevant to the decision
– You get more good ideas and can generate more and
better alternatives
– People thinking together can arrive at better decisions
because of the stimulation and interplay of different
points of view
– Participants are more committed to carrying out
– Coordination and communication are simpler and better
because everyone understands
Participative Problem Solving
• Criticism of group decision
making:
– It takes longer in a group
– There is usually a dominator in a
group
– Group participants get involved in
winning arguments and showing
off
– If consensus is required people
may conform to get the meeting
over
– Consensus leads to mediocre
decisions
Group Decision Making Works Best
When:
• Members are accustom to
working together as a team and
having differing expertise and
point of view but common goals
• The leader is skillful at keeping
the meeting on target
• The group is rewarded for
making good decisions
Solving Peoples Problems
• Personal problems are not
yours to resolve but
LISTENING can help.
• Keep your own emotions
out of it.
• Try to identify the real
problem.
• If possible eliminate
friction.
Win-Win Problem Solving
• Win-Lose: You win, worker loses
• Lose-Win: You lose, worker wins
(retreat and appeasement, no
stand)
• Lose-Lose: The compromise
• Win-Win problem solving means
you find a decision that satisfies
both of you.
– Include worker from the beginning:
From defining the problem to
carrying out an agreement
Guidelines for Building Decision
Making Skills
• Be sure of your authority for
making decisions
• Accept responsibility fully
• Distinguish what's important
• Make the decision at the time it
is needed
• Be alert to signs of problems
needing solutions
• Keep an open mind
Guidelines for Building Decision
Making Skills
• Don’t solicit advise but do
consult your supervisor
when a problem is beyond
your ability to solve
• Make sure that you are not
part of the problem
• Learn from your mistakes
• Evaluate your decisions
when carried out
Unit IV
Interpersonal and Group

Communication : Handling
Interpersonal Conflict
Primary Levels of Conflict
Within Organizations
Intrapersonal (within an individual)
Interpersonal (between individuals)
Intragroup (within a group)
Intergroup (between groups)
Conflict
Conflict: “A process in which one party perceives
that its interests are being opposed or negatively
affected by another party.”
Functional conflict serves the

organization’s interests while
Dysfunctional conflict threatens

the organization’s
interests.
Antecedents of Conflict
• Incompatible personalities or value systems.
• Overlapping or unclear job boundaries.
• Competition for limited resources.
• Interdepartment/intergroup competition.
• Inadequate communication.
• Interdependent tasks.
• Organizational complexity.
Antecedents of Conflict (continued)
• Unreasonable or unclear policies,
standards, or rules.
• Unreasonable deadlines or extreme time
pressure.
• Collective decision making.
• Decision making by consensus.
• Unmet expectations.
• Unresolved or suppressed conflict.
Sources of Interpersonal
Conflict
• Competition for Limited Resources
• Role Conflict
• Competing Work and Family Demands
• Building Stone Walls
• Personality Clashes
• Aggressive Personalities Including Bullies
Marketing – Manufacturing
Areas of Potential Goal Conflict
MARKETING VS. MANUFACTURING
Operative goal is Operative goal is
Goal Conflict customer satisfaction production efficiency
Conflict Area Typical Comment Typical Comment
Breadth of product line: “Our customers “ “The product line is too

demand variety.” broad, all we get are
short, uneconomical runs.”
New product introduction: “New products are our “Unnecessary design changes
lifeblood.” are prohibitively expensive.”
Production scheduling: “We need faster response. “We need realistic customer
Lead times are too long.” commitments that don’t
change like the wind direction
Physical distribution: “Why don’t we ever have “We can’t afford to keep huge
the right merchandise inventories.”
in inventory?”
Quality: “Why can’t we have “Why must we always offer

reasonable quality options that are too
at low cost?” expensive and offer little
customer utility?”
Desired Outcomes of Conflict
Agreement: Strive for equitable and fair

agreements that last.
Stronger relationships: Build bridges of

goodwill and trust for the future.
Learning: Greater self-awareness and creative

problem solving.
Tips for Managers Whose
Employees Are Having a
Personality Conflict
1. Follow company policies for diversity, anti-
discrimination.
2. Investigate and document conflict.
3. If appropriate, take corrective action (e.g.,
feedback or B Mod).
4. If necessary, attempt informal dispute resolution.
5. Refer difficult conflicts to human resource
specialists or hired counselors for formal
resolution attempts and other interventions.
How to Build Cross-Cultural
Relationships and minimize
Conflict
Behavior Rank
Be a good listener 1
Be sensitive to the needs of others 2
Be cooperative, rather than overly competitive 2
Tie
Advocate inclusive (participative) leadership 3
Compromise rather than dominate 4
Build rapport through conversations 5
Be compassionate and understanding 6
Avoid conflict by emphasizing harmony 7
Nurture others (develop and mentor) 8
Concern for Others Five Conflict-Handling Styles
Sharing/
High Accommodative
Compromising
Collaborative
Low Forcing Avoiding
High Low
Concern for Self
Interpersonal Conflict Handling Styles
 Avoiding Style
 Unassertive and uncooperative
 Forcing Style
 Assertive and uncooperative
 Accommodating Style
 Unassertive and cooperative
 Collaborating Style
 Assertive and cooperative
 Compromising Style
 Intermediate level of assertive and
cooperative behaviors
When Should the Avoiding Style Be
Used to Handle Interpersonal Conflicts?
 The issue is of minor or passing importance

 Insufficient information to effectively deal with
the conflict
 Low power relative to the other party
 Others can more effectively resolve the
conflict
When Should the Forcing Style Be
 Emergencies requiring quick action
 Unpopular actions must be taken for long-term
organizational effectiveness and survival
 Self-protective action is needed

When Should the Accommodating Style Be
Need to defuse a potentially explosive

emotional conflict situation
Short-run need to keep harmony and
avoid disruption
Conflict is primarily based on personality
and cannot be easily resolved
When Should the Collaborating Style Be
High level of cooperation is needed

Sufficient parity exists in power of
conflicting parties
Potential for mutual benefits, especially
over long run
Sufficient organizational support to take
the time and energy for collaboration
When Should the Compromising Style Be
 Agreement enables each party to be better off,

or at least not worse off, than without an
agreement
 Achieving a total win–win agreement is not
possible
 Conflicting goals block agreement on one
person’s proposal
Conflict Resolution
• Confrontation and Problem-Solving
• Constructive Handling of Criticism
• Image Exchanging (creating empathy)
• Cognitive Restructuring
• Negotiating and Bargaining
Alternative Dispute Resolution
(ADR) Techniques
Facilitation: Third party gets disputants to deal
directly and constructively with each other.
Conciliation: Neutral third party acts as
communication link between disputants.
Peer review: Impartial co-workers hear both sides
and render decision that may or may not be
binding.
Ombudsman: Respected and trusted member of
the organization hears grievances confidentially.
Mediation: Trained third-party guides disputants
toward their own solution.
Arbitration: Neutral third-party hears both sides in
a court-like setting and renders a binding decision.
Negotiating
Negotiation: “A give-and-take decision-making
process involving interdependent parties with different
preferences.”
Distributive negotiation: Single issue; fixed-pie; win-lose.
Integrative negotiation: More than one issue; win-win.

An Integrative Approach:
Added-Value Negotiation
 Clarify interests.
 Identify options.
 Design alternative deal packages.
 Select a deal.
 Perfect the deal.
Basic Types of Negotiation
 Distributive negotiations
Involve win–lose, fixed-amount situations wherein
one party’s gain is another party’s loss
 Integrative negotiations
Involve joint problem solving to achieve results
benefiting both parties
Attitudinal structuring
The process by which conflicting parties seek to
establish desired attitudes and relationships
Intraorganizational negotiations
Involve sets of negotiators representing different groups,
and each set of negotiators tries to build consensus for
agreement to resolve intragroup conflict before dealing
with the other group’s negotiators
Matrix of Negotiated Outcomes
STRATEGY OF PERSON A
Integrative Distributive
Outcome: Outcome:
Great for Person A Mediocre for Person A
Terrible for Person B Mediocre for Person B
Outcome: Outcome:
Good for Person A Terrible for Person A
Good for Person B Great for Person B
STRATEGY OF PERSON B
Source: Adapted from Anderson, T. Step into my parlor: A survey of strategies and
techniques for effective negotiation. Business Horizons, May-June 1992, 75.
Handling Interpersonal Conflict
in Groups
• Develop skills
• Agree on basics
• Search for interests in common
• Experiment
• Doubt your infallibility
• Treat conflict as a group responsibility
Unit V
Customer care : Effective

Customer Care
Who Are Customers?
• Everyone at work with whom you interact are your
customers
• Everyone who purchases or uses your activities,
events, products and services are your customers
• Your supervisor, your manager, and all of your
employees are your customers, too
You help achieve extraordinary customer service when you make each
interaction one that is positive, effective, efficient, courteous,
competent, thorough, and professional. This is your job!
Definition of Customer
Care…
•Feeling concern and interest in someone who
has entered a business to buy a product or
obtain a service.
This brings out the fact that a person can be a

customer without having to spend money.
Basic rule of customer
care…
• Put yourself in the customers

shoes; see the situation as they
do.
What is Customer Service?
Customer Service is all about:
Providing customers with what they want
• Offering consistent levels of service
• Exceeding and not just meeting expectations
• Fulfilling all customer needs
• Going out of your way to delight customers
Customer Service
Companies who provide excellent service:
• Exceed the expectations of their customers
• Treat customers with respect
• Do not just aim to satisfy – they aim to delight
• Provide solutions to problems
• Consistently deliver outstanding service to their
customers
Make customers feel that they are the most
important part of their business …… which
they are
Why is Service important?
• Intense competition
• Customers have a choice
• It is the only thing that can make us different
from our competitors
• Satisfied and delighted customers will come
back
• Dissatisfied customers will not come back
Your “Service” Role – Why Care?
• Serving every customer well helps you,
your program, and your organization stand
out
• Providing good customer service is
essential to:
– your job security
– future job/career opportunities
– how you feel about what you do
Being The Best -- Everyday!
HIGHLY EFFECTIVE CUSTOMER SERVICE PEOPLE:
• Exceed customer expectations
• Find out how customers want to be treated
• Know the customer's needs are a priority
• Listen effectively to ensure they understand the customer
• Don’t take complaints personally
• Look and act like a professional
• Keep learning
• Keep teaching
• Smile genuinely
• Respect the customer
“Moments of Truth”
"Essentially, Moments of Truth are those

contacts between companies and
customers where a firm's reputation are
at stake.“
(Stewart, 1992)
Moments of Truth
• Each time you meet with a customer,
or potential customer, is a chance to
make a positive impression on that
person. These encounters can be
described as "Moments of Truth".
Moments of Truth
• It is important to identify when these
Moments of Truth occur and to
manage them to ensure you make
the best possible impression on the
customer
Benefits of excellent
Customer Care?
Benefits of excellent
Customer Care
Feel good Improved Return/ Fewer
factor is reputation repeat complaints
high/enjoy business
going to work
Less stress Greater job Happy boss Improved

for mgt and security team spirit,
staff staff morale
and
motivation
More Greater staff Improved Greater
enjoyable loyalty and communicatio chance of
work retention n within the word of
atmosphere business mouth
advertising
Why does poor Customer
Care happen?
• Lack of incentive
• Complacency • Poor knowledge
• Lack of support • No team spirit or
• No real training motivation
• Staff under • Lack of awareness
pressure
Not all that long ago there were four
people named Everybody,
Somebody, Anybody and Nobody.
There was an important job to be done
and Everybody was asked to do it.
Everybody was sure that Somebody
would do it. Anybody could have
done it, but Nobody did it.
Somebody got very angry about that,
because it was Everybody’s job.
Everybody thought Anybody could
do it but Nobody realised that
Everybody would not do it.
It ended up that Everybody blamed
Somebody when Nobody did what
Anybody could have done.
What skills do we need
to use?
Attitude
Appearance
Communication-listening, talking,
reading, writing
Observation of standards and body
language
Assertiveness
Customer Care Skills
There are 8 main customer care skills

that need to be displayed when
serving the customer…
1. Appearance
2. Observation
3. Listening
4. Body Language and Facial
Expression
5. Talking
6. Assertiveness
7. Attitude
8. Behaviour
Appearance…
• The appearance of yourself and the
other members of staff in your team
will say a lot about the standards
within your operation.
• Remember: You are only as

strong as the weakest link in
your staff chain.
Observation
• It’s easy to miss shortfalls in
standards because of familiarity.
• Keep your eyes open.
• Try to stand back and look at your

workplace in an objective way.
Listening: The Four Basic
Communication skills
ListeningSpeakin Reading Writing

g
Learned 1st 2nd 3rd 4th
Most Next Next Least

Used (45%) Most Least (9%)
(30%) (16%)
Next Next
Taught Least Least Most Most
Listening
• If we fail to listen to the customer they

will feel that we do not really care
about them and therefore not return.
• The 2 main ways of listening

attentively are:
1. Physical attending
2. Psychological attending
Physical Attending:
• Face the speaker
• Maintain eye contact
• Maintain an open posture
• Lean towards the speaker
• Stay relatively relaxed
Psychological attending:
Listen to what is being said:
• Listen for the central theme rather than
the facts
• Keep an open mind
• Think ahead
• Analyse and evaluate
• Do not interrupt
• Interpret a tone of voice
• Evaluate the non-verbal signs
Body Language & Facial
Expression
• Reading and understanding body
language is an essential part of
listening. If our body language does
not reflect the words that we are
using then the customer will not
believe us.
ie. Non-verbal behaviour

Understanding a
message…
60
50
• Words: 10%
40
30
• Tone, pitch, volume:
20
Message
35%
10 • Non-verbal behaviour:
0 55%
Words Non-
verbal
Identify expressions…
• Eyes up avoiding contact
• Looking down
• Arms folded
• Arms outstretched
• Upright/good posture
• Face set
Talking
• Golden Rule!
-Acknowledge the customer as soon as

possible!
Talking
• When talking to the customer we
must not…
• Discuss politics, religion, gossip

• Complain about the company
• Moan, moan and moan again!
• Talk over the customers head!
Assertiveness
When dealing with customers there
are 3 types of behaviour we can
employ:
1.Aggressiveness,
2.Assertiveness
3.Submissiveness.
• We should try to apply an assertive
manner at all times.
• By being assertive you remain in
control, have greater self
confidence and earn the respect of
others.
Attitude & Behaviour
• The way we behave with customers
is all important.
• We must display a positive approach
and be courteous at all times.
Remember…
• Each customer is an individual.

• Be enthusiastic-it’s infectious!
• Courtesy costs nothing
• Treat people as individuals. Use
their name.
Key Test of Good Customer
Keep your
Care:
The 5 second Documentatio Five minute
service telephone n response maximum
promise response within 2 days waiting time
Positive Proactive Honesty and Systems

employee Communicatio openness reliability
attitudes n
Being in the Little Extras Attention to Immaculate

know detail Appearance
Set Standards
• By putting procedures in place all
customers will be dealt with in a
professional and efficient manner
• Thus ensuring you have a satisfied
customer network
Examples
• You should have answers to common

queries at hand
• Promises to customers must be realistic
and acted upon within the agreed time
frame
• Customer must be notified of delays
When dealing with a
complaint…
Do...
• Show empathy/concern
• Use their name if you can
• Listen
• Take notes
• Let them make their case
• Ask questions to clarify detail
• Confirm with them that you have got it right
Do…
• Gather your version of events
before replying
• Tell them what you propose to do
• Ensure they are happy
• See it as an opportunity to cement
the relationship and encourage
more business
When dealing with a
complaint…
Do Not…
•Say “it’s not my fault”
•Say “you’re the fifth today to complain
about that”
•Interrupt
•Jump to conclusions
Do not…
• Accept responsibility until you are sure

it’s your fault
• Be patronising
• Argue
• Lose your temper
• Blame others
The Listen Technique
• Lend an ear to the customer’s problem-do not
interrupt
• Identify the important points
• Sympathise- “I’m sorry” acknowledges
something went wrong-not taking the blame
• Thank the customer for taking the time to tell
you what happened
• Explain what can be done
• Now act quickly-don’t give further cause for
complaint!
Language
• Sometimes the words that are used in

communication cause the message to
be misinterpreted. This can happen if
imprecise words are used e.g. “sort of”
or “things” also technical jargon can be
confusing if it is unfamiliar to the other
person.
Customer Service
Language
• AVOID NEGATIVE LANGUAGE
– - Possibly-maybe-perhaps
– - We might be able to do this
– - I hope that will be ok
• USE POSITIVE LANGUAGE
– - I am sure that will be sufficient
– - I know we can get that for you
– - I am certain you will be pleased with this
Avoid certain words
• TRY – This implies that you are

unsure of whether you can do
something – use the word ensure
instead, it is positive and commits
you to action which your customer
will believe.
• Use the word ‘Please’ at the start of
a sentence rather than at the end of
it as it becomes an order at the end
of a sentence
• ‘OK’ sounds bland, automatic and
disengaged
• Use ‘Certainly’, this conveys
warmth and interest in delighting
your customer
• Avoid the word ‘busy’, your
customer should never feel that you
are too busy to look after his/her
needs.
• Try saying ‘I will look into this and

come back to you’
Unit V
Customer care : Managing

Customer Complaints and
Negotiating with the customer
Handling Complaints
What are they?
An opportunity to:
• Make things right

• Turn dissatisfied customers into delighted customers
• Show you care
• Turn complainers into ambassadors
Calming Customers
Listening
Actively show you are listening
Empathy
Show that you do care and are concerned
Agreeing on Common Ground

Find something to agree with
Handling Complaints
Listen
Apologise
Solve
Thank
Make the most of your LAST chance!

Complaint Handling Policy
A good complaint policy:
 Helps create a good ‘Complaint Culture’ in the

organization – the culture of total employee involvement
towards total customer satisfaction
 Encourages and makes it easy for customers to complain

– be it through personal visit, telephone, letter or email
 Empowers the employees to deal with complaints
 Helps develop an attitude: “it is more important to keep

customers than to win the argument” amongst employees
particularly front-end employees
 Ensures all front-end staff is trained to cope with ctiticism and
process complaints effectively
 Has a well planned system for monitoring complaint

data to know:
 No of complaints – all complaints to be documented
 Nature of complaints
 No of justified complaints
 Analysis of complaints as to product-centred,
precess-centred and person-centred
 Proposed remedical actions including modifications
of products / procedures/ systems and identification
of training needs etc
 encourages prompt and competent handling of complaints
 helps to ensure constant supervision of customer satisfaction
 recognizes and rewards employees who

 process complaints rapidly and satisfactorily
 is able to recover a lost customer / regain the confidence

of a dissatisfied customer
 customers include internal customers
Best Practices Across the Globe
• Customer Complaints as opportunities for
improvements:
Best Practice Companies:
 Link complaint Management visions to the Corporate Mission
 Clearly understand the link between complaint resolution

and customer loyalty
 Strongly believe that complaints are primary measure of
customer dissatisfaction
 understand that complaints & their rapid resolution are
critical to customer retention & business growth
Cont.
Proactive feed back
 encourage employees to bring complaints to the fore front
in a variety of formal and informal ways
 are eager to know their shortcomings as well as what
they do well
 Seek out customer communication, no matter how
negative
 permit and encourage upward communication of the
issues through meetings, conferences, emails etc.
 have ‘Associate Response Centre’ concept in place to

encourage employees to call with ideas, complaints and
process improvements
Complaint Management Process
 realize the importance of sharing information across the

organization to ensure total involvement of employees.
 are dedicated to integrate complaint data to initiate

improvements
benchmark their services in relation to its competitors &

customers satisfaction industry leaders.
Contd..
 use total customer data to make enhancements in
process & automation designs to its services
 in a decentralized environment which have total Customer

Satisfaction Center and examines total complaint data in a
consolidated manner, helps perform root cause analysis and
identify where the majority of problems begin
Contd
Out sourced Environment
- Use technology and process, implementing effective

surrogates for ‘being there’ with the customers
-Ensure that the ‘voce of customer’ will continue to be heard

in the company
- Ensure out sourcer's service reps. properly represent the

organization to the customers
Complaint Management Measures
 Link to Customer Satisfaction Measure
 Customer Satisfaction measures integral to management

process
 All Supervisors, team leaders & Customer service

representatives are accountable
Continuous watch on no. of complaints

- Incorporate complaint management measures as part of
their overall customer satisfaction measures
- Types of data measured
 cause wise analysis of all complaints
 Duration wise complaint resolution

Rewards & Recognition
Individual & team – based rewards to illustrate high quality

customer contact and complaint resolution
 Have profit sharing schemes in place based on
Customer Satisfaction index
 Recognize employees in the complaint management
process with:
• Wall of fame noting exceptional work

• Gift certificates to employees who are positive role
models in the complaint process
 By and large do not prefer to link reward to compensation
because of their apprehensive of manipulation of data
Customer – centric organizations:
 Grow into learning organizations
 are innovative in their overall approach
 develop effective customer care programs
 develop effective complaint management systems
 should develop the culture of total employee

involvement towards total customer satisfaction
Negotiating
Negotiation: “A give-and-take decision-
making process involving interdependent
parties with different preferences.”
Distributive negotiation: Single issue; fixed-pie; win-lose.
Integrative negotiation: More than one issue; win-win.

An Integrative Approach:
Added-Value Negotiation
 Clarify interests.
 Identify options.
 Design alternative deal packages.
 Select a deal.
 Perfect the deal.
 Distributive negotiations
Involve win–lose, fixed-amount situations wherein
one party’s gain is another party’s loss
 Integrative negotiations
Involve joint problem solving to achieve results
benefiting both parties
Attitudinal structuring
The process by which conflicting parties seek to
establish desired attitudes and relationships
Intraorganizational negotiations
Involve sets of negotiators representing different groups,
and each set of negotiators tries to build consensus for
agreement to resolve intragroup conflict before dealing
with the other group’s negotiators
Matrix of Negotiated Outcomes
STRATEGY OF PERSON A
Outcome: Outcome:
Great for Person A Mediocre for Person A
Terrible for Person B Mediocre for Person B
Outcome: Outcome:
Good for Person A Terrible for Person A
Good for Person B Great for Person B
STRATEGY OF PERSON B
Source: Adapted from Anderson, T. Step into my parlor: A survey of strategies and
techniques for effective negotiation. Business Horizons, May-June 1992, 75.
Key Tasks for a Mediator
 Ensuring mutual motivation
 Achieving a balance in situational power
 Coordinating confrontation efforts
 Promoting openness in dialogue
 Maintaining an optimum level of tension

Unit V
Counselling Skills
What is Counseling
• Direct face-to-face conversation between a
supervisor and a direct report
• Used to help the employee identify the

reason for poor performance to improve,
not embarrass or humiliate him or her
• Generally more formal than feedback and

coaching and is required of a small
percentage of employees
Purpose of Counseling
• Communicate concerns to the employee
• Determine the cause of the employee’s

activities
• Identify avenues for improvement and/or

development
• Improve employee performance

When to Counsel
• When more action is required by the supervisor
following feedback and coaching
• Re-establish Expectations
• Not all unacceptable behavior warrants

discipline:
Usually minor infractions, or case of first offense
by a long term employee require counseling
The Counseling Process:
Before the Session
• Define your objectives.
• Have all documentation available
• Review all facts
• Create an outline
• Arrange for privacy
• Verbally inform the employee in
person and in private what the
meeting is about, and where and
when it is to take place
Session Guidelines
How you behave and what you
say during the session can affect
the outcome
•Set a positive tone
•Describe the problem
•Ask, then listen
•Correct the situation
•Listen
•Conclude the session
Minimizing Conflict
• Counsel in a timely manner
• Counsel in private
• Look for the root cause of
the problem
• Listen. Do not interrupt
• Show sincere interest in the
employee
• If you can help, offer it, do it
SKILLS FOR COUNSELLING
 Listening Skills to Work with

Clarifying Client’s Feelings
questions Help Express feelings
Use of Open- Identify & Discriminate bet.feelings

ended questions Help to Alter/Accept feelings
Assessing Ability-Attend to Verbal/Nonverbal Cues
potential deciding
Convey Support :Verbal
response
& Nonverbal methods

Business Communication

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Business Communication

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BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

Sigband and Bateman 1981

2. HOW DOES COMMUNICATION WORK?

3. WHY DOES COMMUNICATION HAPPEN?

4. WHAT ARE THE BARRIERS TO

Adapted from Littlejohn 2002: p. 8

No matter what medium of communication is

Go to the Activity for more on this.

Sender or Channel Medium Receiver

Encoding Channel Decoding

You have an idea/information

2.The sender encodes the idea

3.The sender transmits the message

5.The receiver decodes the message

Your receiver must decode (absorb and

6.The receiver sends feedback

After decoding the message, the receiver

State all the barriers

Psychological Message from external stakeholder ignored due to ‘groupthink’

Cultural Message from organisation misinterpreted by members of a

Physical Message cannot be heard and visual aids cannot be seen by

Common barriers to communication: probing for ‘causes’

3)Deceptive Communication Tactics

Perception is people’s individual interpretation of

Language: is an arbitrary (random) code

Deceptive comm. (exaggerating

Perception – object recognition

Port 1010 building in the Docklands region of Melbourne, Australia.

Human memory processes: a three-stage model

• Consider the three out of ten

Figure 2.5 The iceberg metaphor for culture

• Where are they?

2)Foster open-communication climate

3)Commit to ethical communication

4)Create efficient messages

• Watch nonverbal cues

The exchange of information

Formal Communication Network:

Formal Communication Network:

Informal Communication Network:

Verbal and Non-Verbal

Quick discussion – what do you think

• In Communication & Culture, we use the

Verbal communication is restricted to

• The capacity of language is infinite

– non-verbal communication involves gestures,

– our non-verbal behaviour is mostly

• This is fine but could include everything from animal

“Bodily communication, other than words and language”

• all societies have different non-verbal languages

• the non-verbal communication is more than just

1. Different categories (or types) of NVC

2. The functions (or uses) of NVC

Before we do this, we need to establish some

• Most of us accept we must either learn a new language

• We assume we will have no difficulty in decoding non-

• We need to be aware of the enormous range and

• Jumping to conclusions about meanings

- The way we speak (also known as prosodic features)

A ‘creaky’ or ‘gravely’ tone of voice is often used in English to

Elocution lessons were once very popular amongst

• You only have to think of the huge industries

• Many societies had (and some still do