COMIMSA Chapter 12

CHAPTER 12

Nondestructive Examination
(NDE) Processes
 COMIMSA Chapter 12

1. Introduction

Under some specifications, a knowledgeable welding inspector has the

authority to accept welds by visual examination alone.

Some of the welds in a structure, however can not be easily certified.

The welding inspector can employ one or more of the following methods

to collect the necessary evidence for specification compliance:

1) NDE - ASNT SNT TC 1A

2) Chemical Analysis qualified to ASTM standards.
3) Metallurgical Analysis
4) Mechanical Testing
 COMIMSA Chapter 12

1. Introduction

There are three principal features to be considered when choosing an

examination method:

1) Limitations of the examination methods

2) Acceptance standards.

3) Economics
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2. Visual Examination

It has been shown that an effective program of visual inspection results in

the early discovery of most defects that, if left undetected, would later be

found by using a more costly method of NDE

Visual examination is limited to the detection of surface discontinuities.

However, when conscientiously applied before, during, and after

welding.
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2. Visual Examination

Preventing discontinuities before a weld is complete is one of the most

important features of visual examination

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2. Penetrant Testing (PT)

Penetrant testing is a sensitive method used for locating discontinuities,

such as crack and porosity in non porous materials.

Clean discontinuities open to the surface (precleaning).

Penetrant liquid is applied to the surface to be examined (dwell time)

The excess of penetrant is then cleaned from the test surface.

Developer powder is applied.

ASTM E165, Standard Practice for Liquid Penetrant Inspection

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2. Penetrant Testing (PT)

Following the application and drying

of the developer, all indications are

evaluated accordance with

applicable specification.
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2. Penetrant Testing (PT)

There are two general classifications of penetrants:

Sensitivity
(+)

Visible Fluorescent

White Light Black Light (UV)

Critical Applications
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2. Penetrant Testing (PT)

There are several methods for application of penetrants

Dipping

Brushing

Flooding

Spraying
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2. Penetrant Testing (PT)

Uses

Magnetic materials and non magnetic which cannot be examined by

magnetic particle.

Advantages
Inexpensive and quick
Process simple
Few false or nonrelevant indications on smooth surfaces

Limitations
Discontinuities must be clean and open to surface
Deleterious substances used in penetrants on welds and base
metals
Difficult to remove from discontinuities
Weld surface should be ground smooth before inspection
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2. Penetrant Testing (PT)

Interpretations

Not reduce the recommended dwell times for penetrant or developer

Slow response to penetrant and developer from tightly closed cracks

Inadequate removal of penetrant will give false indications

Indications that repeat at the same location through several

cleanings undoubtedly reveal open discontinuities.

Avoid spraying cleaner directly on the test surface between

application of the penetrant and developer.
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3. Magnetic Testing (MT)

Is used for locating surface or near surface discontinuities in

ferromagnetic materials.

This method involves the establishment of a magnetic field within the

material and can be examined with:

Prods

Yokes

Coils

ASTM E709, Guide for Magnetic Particle Inspection

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3. Magnetic Testing (MT)

 COMIMSA Chapter 12

3. Magnetic Testing (MT)

The pattern of discontinuities is revealed by the buildup of iron powder

particles that are applied to the surface as a:

Dry Powder

Powder suspended in a liquid

Sensitivity
(+)

Visible Fluorescent

White Light Black Light (UV)

Critical Applications
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3. Magnetic Testing (MT)

The electric field to generate the magnetic field can be:

Current Discontinuities Comments

AC Surface Improved sensitivity in rough surfaces
Slightly below
DC
surface
Surface and Benefits of both types of magnetizing
HWDC
below surface currents
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3. Magnetic Testing (MT)

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3. Magnetic Testing (MT)

Uses

Quality of welds, can detect:

Surface cracks in the weld or metal base

Laminations or other discontinuities on the prepared edge of the
metal base
Incomplete fusion
Undercut
Subsurface cracks

Advantages
Reveals discontinuities not open to the surface or filled with some
substance
Faster and more economical than PT
Require less cleaning prior to examination
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3. Magnetic Testing (MT)

Limitations

Applicable only to ferromagnetic materials

Difficulties in weldments where the magnetic characteristics of the

deposited weld metal differ appreciably from those of the base metal.

Difficulties where the magnetic field is not properly oriented.

Indications in dissimilar metals joints

Must be applied in at least two directions

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4. Radiographic Testing (RT)

The application of radiography for weld examination depends on:

Weld joint location

Joint configuration
Material thickness

Radiography uses X ray or gamma radiation that penetrates through the

part and produces an image on a film or plate. Selection of the radiation

source for a particular thickness of weld is a critical factor.

ASTM E94, Standard Recommended Practice for Radiographic Testing

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4. Radiographic Testing (RT)

The use of a variable light intensity viewer is helpful when viewing and
analyzing radiographs.

Determining the film density at various points is also necessary and is

usually accomplished through the use of a device referred to as
densitometer.

To indicate the acquired sensitivity of a given radiography a device

referred as an image quality indicator (IQI) is placed adjacent to the area
of interest.
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4. Radiographic Testing (RT)

There are two types of IQIs :

Shim type - holes

Wire type - wires

The sensitivity of the radiograph

is determined by which one of

the three holes, or wire diameters

is visible on the radiograph.

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4. Radiographic Testing (RT)

Advantages
RT can detect surface and subsurface discontinuities

Limitations

As the joint becomes more complex increase the cost and decrease
the amount of information.

Discontinuities must be approximately aligned with the radiation

beam.

Laminations and lamellar tearing are rarely detected.

Initial setup for this testing requires a high capital expense.

Radiation Hazard
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5. Ultrasonic Testing (UT)

The ultrasonic methods uses the transmission of mechanical energy in

wave form at frequencies above the audible range.

Reflections of this energy by discontinuities in metals are detected.

ASTM E1032, Radiographic Examination of Weldments

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5. Ultrasonic Testing (UT)

Uses

In the pulse-echo technique:

A transducer transmits a pulse of high frequency sound into the

material

The reflected sound is received from a discontinuity, the opposite

surface or other surfaces of the part.

The reflected sound is received as an echo which, together with the

original pulse, is displayed on the screen of a cathode ray tube
(CRT).
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5. Ultrasonic Testing (UT)

Uses
 COMIMSA Chapter 12

5. Ultrasonic Testing (UT)

Uses

Before testing, the instrument to be

used must be calibrated against a

reference standard.
 COMIMSA Chapter 12

5. Ultrasonic Testing (UT)

Uses

When a sound beam intercepts the plane of discontinuities at or near 90,

a maximum reflected signal will return to the transducer.

In scanning welds, this is achieved by angle beams into the work, though
a Lucite wedge and into the work through water, oil, or similar coupling
material

The equipment must be calibrated using a standard reference block,

such as the IIW calibration block.
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5. Ultrasonic Testing (UT)

Advantages

Detect both surface and subsurface discontinuities

For pulse-echo testing, access is necessary to only one side of the

work.

The size of flaws and their location may be determined quantitatively

More sensitive than RT to planar discontinuities

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5. Ultrasonic Testing (UT)

Limitations

Materials with large grain size tend to scatter and disperse the sound
beam.

The scan pattern must be sufficient to pass the projected sound

beam through the entire volume of the weld and HAZ to permit
detection of possible discontinuities.

For contact testing, surface must be smooth

Personnel require more training and experience

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6. Eddy Current (Electromagnetic) Testing (ET)

ET requires that the part under test be subjected to the influence of an

alternating electromagnetic field.

This test detects surface or subsurface discontinuities in any material that

is an electrical conductor.
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6. Eddy Current (Electromagnetic) Testing (ET)

The electromagnetic field induces

eddy current and also magnetic

fields.

Information gathered by probe

coils is transmitted to a test circuit
and analyzed electronically

Electromagnetic field frequency

are usually in the range of 500
5000 hertz.
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6. Eddy Current (Electromagnetic) Testing (ET)

Uses

ET is employed on magnetic or

nonmagnetic materials.

The magnitude and direction of

the eddy currents are detected
by the coil which acts through
electronic circuitry to register
the discontinuity.

If a variation in flux is
associated with discontinuities
in the material, the
discontinuities are detected.
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6. Eddy Current (Electromagnetic) Testing (ET)

Advantages

Automate examination at high speed and relatively low cost.

Indications produced are proportional to the actual size of the

discontinuity.

Contact of probes with the work is unnecessary. .

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6. Eddy Current (Electromagnetic) Testing (ET)

Advantages

ET can detect many material characteristics:

Electrical conductivity

Magnetic permeability

Thickness of a nonconductive coating.

Alloy content

Heat Treatment

Presence of discontinuities at or below the surface.

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6. Eddy Current (Electromagnetic) Testing (ET)

Limitations

Any magnetic or electrically conductive surface dirt must be removed

before inspection.

Design of the coil appropriate for shape of the component to be tested.

Limit of penetration in nonmagnetic metals is approximately

below the surface.
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7. Acoustic Emission (AET)

Atomic movements that lead to cracking are accomplished by sound

bursts, which may be detected by piezoelectric elements.

Weld quality may be assessed during welding and cooling.

If the discontinuity is not affected by loading, they will not be detected.

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8. Leak Test (LT)

LT methods can be pneumatic or gas and soap bubble test.

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8. Leak Test (LT)

Open tanks are frequently tested by filling them with water that contains
fluorescein, which permits ready detection of any seepage under
ultraviolet illumination.

Another leak test applied to storage tanks (floor joints) is referred to as

the vacuum box test

The leak test may use an organic halide gas on one side of the vessel
and a halide torch on the other. The torch flame changes color in the
presence of halogens.

Helium as a tracer gas, is referred to as the helium spectrometer leak test

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9. Proof Test

May involve overloading the component or testing for leaks, or both.

Hydrostatic test
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10. Magnetic Test for Delta Ferrite

11. Qualification of NDE Personnel

ASNT SNT TC 1A