I.

Introduction to Linguistics

Linguistics is the scientific study of human language.

It is scientific because it follows the general
methodology of science.
Linguistics has two major aims:
a) To study the nature of language and establish a theory of
language.
b) To describe a language and all languages by applying the
theory established.
 A linguist is a person who studies language in all its
aspects.
a) Total subject-matter of study, language or languages, may be
examined from a historical angle.
b) The study that deals with changes that occur in course of time
is called diachronic linguistics.
c) The study that deals with the description of language at a
given point of time is called synchronic linguistics.
d) The comparison of two or more diachronic descriptions is
called comparative linguistics or historical comparative
linguistics.
e) The comparison of two or more synchronic descriptions is
called contrastive linguistics.
 II. What is Language?
Lets look at some quoted definitions.
1. Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of
communicating ideas, emotions and desire by means of a
system of voluntarily produced symbols.- E. Sapir: Language.
2. Language is the expression of ideas by means of speech
sounds combined into words.-Henry Sweet.
3. A language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols, by means of
which a social group cooperated. Bloch and Trager: Outline
of Linguistic Analysis.
4. Language is human..; a verbal systematic symbolisma means
of transmitting information.. a form of social behavior [with
a] high degree of convention. J. Whatmough: Language.
5. A language [is a symbol systembased on pure or arbitrary
conventioninfinitely extendable and modifiable according to the
changing needs and conditions of the speakers.- R. H. Robins:
General Linguistics.
6. Human languages are unlimited..an unlimited set of discrete
signals..have great structural complexity..structure on at least two
levels..are open-ended..allow for the transmission of
information. R.W. Langacker: Language and its Structure.
7. When we study human language, we are approaching what
some might call human essence, the distinctive qualities of
mind that are, so far as we know, unique to man. N. Chomsky:
Language and Mind.
 Notice that most of these statements agree on a number of
features.
I. Language is a means of communication and self-expression.
II. Language is arbitrary.
III. Language is non-instinctive; conventional.
IV. Language is symbolic.
V. Language is systematic.
VI. Language is vocal.
VII. Language is a form of social behavior.
VIII. Language is human.
IX. Language is open-ended, extendable and modifiable.
X. Language is structurally complex.
III. Animal Communication and Human Language

Some of the important characteristic features of human

languages are the following:
Duality of patterning
Creativity
Arbitrariness
Displacement
Redundancy
Culture-preserving and culture-transmitting features
Property of being dynamic
 These differences between human language and other
forms of communication are primarily due to the fact
that the brain of man is different from that of animals.
The human brain has an innate capacity for learning
language creatively.
IV. Modern Linguistics Ferdinand De Saussure
Father of Modern Linguistics Contribution and
Interface
1. Language is a system of systems : Linguists have set up
phonological, morphological, lexical, syntactic and semantic
levels of analysis.
I. Phonetics is the study of the articulation, transmission and reception of
speech sounds.
II. Phonology is the study of the organization of the units of the sounds of
speech into syllables and other larger units. The phonology of a
language is a description of the systems and patterns of sounds that
occur in that language.
III. Morphology is the study of words.
IV. Syntax deals with the combination of words into phrases, clauses and
sentences.
V. Semantics is concerned with the study of meaning in all its aspects.
2. Distinction between Langue & Parole:
The term language includes the entire human potential for
speech and writing, both mental and physical.
Its actual manifestation that we see and hear in terms of
individual utterances (i.e. speaking) is called parole.
The abstract system behind the manifestation shared by a social
group is called langue.
The system (langue) together with its manifestation (parole)
constitutes speech (i.e. language or tongue). A language system
does not exist in the world; it must be constructed from its
manifestation (i.e. parole).
3. Distinction between signifier and signified
The abstract system called langue manifests itself in terms of
signs spoken or written. A sign is a complex whole that links a
sound/letter image and the concept.
concept = signified
Sign
expression = signifier
(spoken or written)
A sign is the associative total of the concept and expression; it
represents or stands for meaning. The relationship between a
concept and its expression is arbitrary.
Because the sign is arbitrary, it follows no law other than tradition
and because it is based on tradition it is arbitrary.
4. Distinction between syntagmatic and paradimatic relationship
Languages exhibit two important types of relationships that is
syntagmatic and paradigmatic .
5. All linguistic relationships are binary .
Linguists try to analyze, study and understand the sign system
called language, the nature of its arbitrariness, the various types
of relationships found in the system, and the various functions
performed by them.
Users of language employ a complex system of relations inherent
in language without being able to isolate and describe them.
This task is left to linguistic analysis.
V. Social aspects of language
Following factors help us understand the meaning and use of
language;
a. Nature of participants
b. Nature of participation
c. Role of participants
d. Function of speech events
e. Mode or medium
f. Kind of discourse
g. Topic of discourse
h. Physical setting
i. Socio-cultural situation
j. Real world knowledge or beliefs of the participants
k. The speakers desire or lack of commitment on a position
 All these factors go in to make for the speakers linguistic
abilities and communicative abilities, that is an effective user
of a language should be able to produce grammatically well-
formed sentences and also be able to select in use sentences
appropriately.
VI. Languages in contact

Two or more languages that come into contact may influence

one another.
A pidgin language is a marginal language
A creole language is a pidgin language.
Diglossia
Code-switching
Code-mixing
Prague School of Linguistics:
In America: Boas, Sapir, Bloomfield, Chomsky
Disciples of Chomsky proposed new theories :
Tagmemics, Systemics, Stratificational Grammar, Case hammer,
etc.