Particle fracture mechanisms

Model predicting energy requirement and product size

distribution
Types of comminution equipment
Interparticle forces
Granulation
 Small particles are more difficult to break
than large particles can be explained using
the concept of failure by crack propagation.
First,the length of a crack is limited by the
size of the particle.
Secondly, the Inglis equation [Equation (1)]
overpredicts K in the case of small particles
since in these particles there is less room for
the stress distribution patterns to develop.
 Inglis (1913) proposed that the stress concentration
factor, K, around a hole, crack or corner could be
calculated according to the formula:
Equation 1

where L is the half the length of the crack, R is the

radius of crack tip or hole and K is the stress
concentration factor (local stress/mean stress in
body).
Proposed that for a crack in the surface of a
body to propagate the following criteria must
be satisfied:
The strain energy that would be released
must be greater than the surface energy
created.
There must be a crack propagation
mechanism available.
Showed that as particle size decreases, the
fracture strength increases until a critical size is
reached when crack propagation becomes
impossible.
Size reduction obviously require energy input but the
energy is consumed in size reduction apparatus at a
much higher rate than would be predicted from the
new surface area created. This 'lost' energy is
consumed in:
Deforming the particle to its elastic limit
Compacting particles after fracture
Overcoming friction between particles
Elastically deforming milling surfaces
Deformation of fractured particles
There are 3 well-known postulates predicting
energy requirements for particle size
reduction.
1. Rittingers Law (1867)
2. Kicks Law (1885)
3. Bonds Law (1952)
 Proposed that the energy required for
particle size reduction was directly
proportional to the area of new surface
created.
C R cons tan t
1 1
E C R x1 initial particle sizes
x2 x1 x2 final particle sizes
dE 1 CR K R f c
C R 2 f c crushing strength of the material
dx x
K K Rittinger ' s cons tan t
 Proposed that the energy required in any
comminution process was directly
proportional to the ratio of the volume of the
feed particle to the product particle.
x1
E C K c ln
x2
dE 1
Ck
dx x
 Bonds law is based on data which Bond
obtained from industrial and laboratory scale
processes involving many materials.
1 1
E CB
x2 x1

dE 1
CB 3/ 2
dx x
 10 10
EB WI
x2 x1

EB = energy required to reduce the

top particle size of the material
from x1 to x2.
WI = the Bond work index
 It is common to assume that Kicks proposal
is applicable for large particle size (coarse
crushing and crushing), Rittingers for very
small particle size (ultra fine grinding) and the
Bond formula being suitable for intermediate
particle size the most common range for
many industrial grinding processes.
Meanings of specific rate of breakage and
breakage distribution function
The choice of machine selected for a particular
grinding operation will depend on the following
variables:
Stressing mechanism
Size of feed and product
Material properties
Carrier medium
Mode of operation
Capacity
Combination with other unit operations
Mechanism 1
Stress applied between two surfaces at low velocity,
0.01 10 m/s (crushing)

Mechanism 2
Stress applied at a single solid surface at high
velocity impact, 10 200 m/s ( high velocity impact)

Mechanism 3
Machines using a combination of mechanism 1 and 2
, (crushing and impact with attrition)
 Behave like a pair of giant
nutcrackers.
One jaw is fixed and the
other, which is hinged at its
upper end, is moved towards
and away from the fixed jaw
by means of toggles driven by
an eccentric.
The lumps of material are
crushed between the jaws and
leave the crusher when they
are able to pass through a grid
at the bottom.
 It has a fixed jaw in the form
of a truncated cone.
The other jaw is a cone
which rotates inside the
fixed jaw on the eccentric
mounting.
Material is discharged when
it is small enough to pass
through the gap between the
jaws.
 Two cylindrical rolls rotate in opposite directions,
horizontally and side by side with an adjustable gap
between them.
As the rolls rotate the drag in material which is
choke-fed by gravity so that the particle fracture
occurs as the material passes through the gap
between the rolls.
The rolls may be ribbed to give improved purchase
between material and rolls.
 The feed material falls on to the
centre of a circular rotating table
and is thrown out by centrifugal
force.
In moving outwards the material
passes under a roller and is
crushed.
 Consists of a rotating shaft to
which are attached fixed or
pivoted hammers.
This device rotates inside a
cylinder.
The particles are fed into the
cylinder either by gravity or
by gas stream.
In the gravity-fed version the
particles leave the chamber
when they are small enough
to pass through a grid at the
bottom.
 Consists of two parallel circular
discs each carrying a set of
projecting pins.
One disc is fixed and the other
rotates at high speed so that its
pins pass close to those on the
fixed disc.
Particles are carried in air into
the centre and as they move
radially outwards are fractured
by impact or by attrition.
 Relies on the turbulence created in
high velocity jets of air or steam in
order to produce conditions for inter-
particle collisions which bring about
particle fracture.
These mills have a very high specific
energy consumption and are subjected
to extreme wear when handling
abrasive materials.
 A vertical cylinder containing
a stirred bed of sand, glass
beads or shot.
The feed, in the form of a
slurry, is pumped into the
bottom of the bed and the
product passes out at the top
through a screen which retains
the bed material.
 The feed in the form of a slurry passes through
the gap between a male, ribbed cone rotating
at high speed and a female static cone.
 A rotating cylindrical or
conical shell about half
filled with balls of steel
or ceramic.
The speed of rotation of
the cylinder is such that
the balls are caused to
tumble over one another
without causing
cascading.
The carrier medium is
air, which may be heated
to avoid moisture which
tends to cause clogging.
 Feed Size Product Size

Coarse crusher 1500 40 mm 50 5 mm

Intermediate Crushers 50 - 5 mm 5 0.1 mm

Fine Crushers. grinders 5 2 mm < 0.1 mm

Fine Milling < 0.2 mm down to 0.01 m

1. Hardness - very hard materials are better in low speed or
low contact machines
2. Structure - fibrous materials need tearing or cutting action
3. Moisture content - materials with 5 - 50% moisture do not
flow easily and can be difficult to process
4. Friability
5. Stickiness - sticky materials need easily cleaned machines
6. Soapiness - if coefficient of friction is low crushing may be
difficult
7. Explosives - need inert atmosphere
8. Hazardous to health - need good confinement
9. Closeness of distribution
 The carrier medium may be a gas or a liquid.
Although the most common gas used is air,
inert gases may be used in some cases as
indicated above.
The most common liquid used in wet grinding
is water although oils are sometimes used.
 Mills operate in either batch or continuous
mode.
Choice between modes will be based on
throughput, the process and economics.
The capacity of batch mills varies from a few
grammes on the laboratory scale to a few
tonnes on a commercial scale.
 van der Waals Forces
Forces due to Adsorbed Liquid Layers
Forces due to Liquid Bridges
Electrostatic Forces
Solid Bridges

(a) pendular (b) funicular

(c) capillary (d) droplet

 particle size enlargement by sticking
together smaller particles using agitation to
impart energy to particles and granules.
The most common type of granulation
method is wet granulation where a liquid
binder is distributed over the bed to initiate
granule formation.
 Wetting & Nucleation

Consolidation & Coalescence

Attrition & Breakage