ELS3101 ELECTRONIC II

Week 2.i
Output Stages And Power Amplifiers

INSTITUT TEKNOLOGI DEL

Jl Sisingamangaraja, Tobasamosir (22381), Sumatera Utara, Indonesia
telp +62632331234, fax +626323311116, www.del.ac.id
 Low Output Resistance no loss of gain
Small-Signal Not applicable
Total-Harmonic Distortion (fraction of %)
Efficiency
https://www.calvin.edu/~pribeiro/courses/e
Temperature Requirements
ngr332/Handouts/
 Contd .
Power is not really something that can be
amplified. Voltage and current can be
amplified.

The term power amplifier although technically

incorrect has become understood to mean an
amplifier that is intended to drive a load (such
as a speaker, a motor, etc).
Functional blocks of an amplifier
All power amplifiers have:

1.A Power supply

2.An input stage

3.An output stage

 1.Power Supply
The primary purpose of a power supply in a
power amplifier is to take the 120 V AC power
from the outlet and convert it to a DC voltage.

The very best of amplifiers have two totally

independent power supplies, one for each
channel (they do share a common AC power
cord though).
 2. Input Stage
The general purpose of the input stage of a
power amplifier (sometimes called the "front
end") is to receive and prepare the input signals
for "amplification" by the output stage.

Two types:
1.Balanced Input
2.Single Ended Input
 2. Input Stage
Balanced inputs are much preferred over
single ended inputs when interconnection
cables are long and/or subject to noisy
electrical environments because they provide
very good noise rejection.

The input stage also contains things like input

level controls.
 3.Output Stage
The portion which actually converts the weak
input signal into a much more powerful "replica"
which is capable of driving high power to a
speaker.
This portion of the amplifier typically uses a
number of "power transistors" (or MOSFETs)
and is also responsible for generating the most
heat in the unit.
The output stage of an amplifier interfaces to
the speakers.
 Amplifier Classes
The Class of an amplifier refers to the design of
the circuitry within the amp.

For audio amplifiers, the Class of amp refers

to the output stage of the amp.
Classes

Collector current waveforms for

transistors operating in (a) class A, (b)
class B, (c) class AB, and (d) class C
amplifier stages.
 Figure 1 - The Sinewave Cycle

Class-A: Output device(s) conduct through 360 degrees of input cycle

(never switch off) - A single output device is possible. The device conducts
for the entire waveform in Figure 1

Class-B: Output devices conduct for 180 degrees (1/2 of input cycle) -
for audio, two output devices in "push-pull" must be used (see Class-AB)

Class-AB: Halfway (or partway) between the above two examples (181 to
200 degrees typical) - also requires push-pull operation for audio. The
conduction for each output device is shown in Figure 1.
 Figure 1 - The Sinewave Cycle

Class-C: Output device(s) conduct for less than 180 degrees (100 to
150 degrees typical) - Radio Frequencies only - cannot be used for audio!
This is the sound heard when one of the output devices goes open circuit in
an audio amp! See Figure 1, showing the time the output device conducts
 Class A Output Stage
Class A output stage is a simple linear
current amplifier.
It is also very inefficient, typical maximum
efficiency between 10 and 20 %.
Only suitable for low power applications.
High power requires much better
efficiency.
Transfer Characteristics
Basic class A amplifier operation. Output is shown 180 out of phase with the input (inverted).
Maximum class A output occurs when the Q-point is centered on the ac load line.
Q-point closer to cutoff.
Q-point closer to saturation.
FIGURE
FIGURE 9-30 Class A power amplifier with correct output voltage swing.
 Why is class A so inefficient ?
Single transistor can only conduct in one
direction.
D.C. bias current is needed to cope with
negative going signals.
75 % (or more) of the supplied power is
dissipated by d.c.
Solution : eliminate the bias current.
 Class A
Class A amplifiers have very low distortion
(lowest distortion occurs when the volume is
low)

They are very inefficient and are rarely used for

high power designs.

The distortion is low because the transistors in

the amp are biased such that they are half "on"
when the amp is idling
 Class A
As a result of being half on at idle, a lot of
power is dissipated in the devices even when
the amp has no music playing!
Class A amps are often used for "signal" level
circuits (where power requirements are small)
because they maintain low distortion.
 Class-A Benefits

The first is circuit simplicity.

The signal is subjected to comparatively little
amplification, resulting in an open loop gain
which is generally fairly low.
This means that very little overall feedback is
used, so stability and phase should be excellent
over the audio frequencies.
Do not require any frequency compensation.
 Class-A Benefits
No cross over distortion
No switching distortion
Lower harmonic distortion in the voltage amplifier
Lower harmonic distortion in the current amplifier
No signal dependent distortion from the power
supply
Constant and low output impedance
Simpler design
Circuit Operation
Basic class B amplifier operation (noninverting).
Common-collector class B amplifier.
Class B push-pull ac operation.
Transfer Characteristics
Crossover Distortion
Illustration of crossover distortion in a class B push-pull amplifier. The transistors conduct only during the portions
of the input indicated by the shaded areas.
Transformer coupled push-pull amplifiers. Q1 conducts during the positive half-cycle; Q2 conducts during the
negative half-cycle. The two halves are combined by the output transformer.
Biasing the push-pull amplifier to eliminate crossover distortion.
Class B Output Stage
Q1 and Q2 form two unbiased
emitter followers
Q1 only conducts when the input
is positive
Q2 only conducts when the input
is negative
Conduction angle is,
therefore, 180
When the input is zero, neither
conducts
i.e. the quiescent power
dissipation is zero
Class B Current Waveforms

Iout

time

IC1

time

IC2

time
 Class B Efficiency

Average power drawn from the

positive supply:
Pve VS I C1

IC1
A/RL
A sin()
0 2 Phase,

IC1 d sin d
1 1 A A
I C1
2 0
2 R
0 L RL
By symmetry, power drawn from +ve and ve
supplies will be the same. Total power, therefore:
2VS A
PS Pve Pve 2 Pve
RL
Load power:
2
vout A2 sin 2 t A2
PL 2VS A
RL RL 2 RLP PS ve Pve 2 P ve
RL

Efficiency:
PL A2 RL A

PS 2 RL 2VS A 4VS

NB. A VS / 4 78.5%
 Power Dissipation

To select appropriate output transistors, the maximum

power dissipation must be calculated.

2
2VS A A
PD PS PL
RL 2 RL

Just need to find the maximum value of PD to select

transistors/heatsinks
Maximum Power Dissipation

PD is a quadratic function of A,
2VS A A2
PD
RL 2 RL
dPD
maximum when: 0
dA
2VS A 2VS
0 A
RL RL

4VS2 2VS2 2VS2

PD (max) 2 2 2
RL RL RL
 Efficiency / Power Dissipation
Peak efficiency of the class B output
stage is 78.5 %, much higher than class
A.
Unlike class A, power dissipation varies
with output amplitude.
Remember, there are two output
devices so the power dissipation is
shared between them.
Cross-Over Distortion
A small base-emitter voltage
is needed to turn on a
transistor
Q1 actually only conducts
when vin > 0.7 V
Q2 actually only conducts
when vin < -0.7 V
When 0.7 > vin > -0.7,
nothing conducts and the
output is zero.
i.e. the input-output
relationship is not at all
linear.
 Actual Input-Output Curve

vout

vout vin VBE

-VBE

+VBE vin
vout vin VBE

Crossover Distortion
Effect of Cross-Over Distortion
 Class B
A class B output stage can be far more
efficient than a class A stage (78.5 %
maximum efficiency compared with 25
%).
It also requires twice as many output
transistors
and it isnt very linear; cross-over
distortion can be significant.
 Class B
Class B amplifiers are used in low cost designs
or designs where sound quality is not that
important.

Class B amplifiers are significantly more

efficient than class A amps.

They suffer from bad distortion when the signal

level is low (the distortion in this region of
operation is called "crossover distortion").
 Class B
Class B is used most often where economy of
design is needed.

Before the advent of IC amplifiers, class B

amplifiers were common in clock radio circuits,
pocket transistor radios, or other applications
where quality of sound is not that critical.
Fig. 9.1 Collector current waveforms for transistors operating in (a) class A, (b) class B, (c) class AB, and (d) class C amplifier
stages.
Class A +VCC

Q1

vIN
+
I Q1 = 0 hingga 2xIBias.
RL vO
IBIAS
-

-VCC

IBIAS
R1

QBIAS

R2 R3

-VCC
 Class A IE1 I iL

The bias current I must ve greater the largest negative current value
Transfer Characteristics Otherwise Q cutts off
The transfer characyteristic of the emitter follower for this figure is

vO v I v BE1

Where vBE1 depends on the emitter current iE1 and thus on the load
current iL.
If we neglect the relative small changes in vBE1 (60mV for every factot of
10 change in iE) the transfer curve results

Fig. 9.2 An emitter follower (Q1) biased

with a constant current I supplied by Fig. 9.3 Transfer characteristic of the
transistor Q2. emitter follower in Fig. 9.2. This linear
characteristic is obtained by neglecting the
change in vBE1 with iL. The maximum
positive output is determined by the
saturation of Q1. In the negative direction,
the limit of the linear region is determined
either by Q1 turning off or by Q2
saturating, depending on the values of I
and RL.
Class A

Transfer Characteristics
From figure 9.3 we can see that
v omax VCC VCE1sat

In the negative direction, the limite of the linear region is

determined either by Q1 turning off
v Omin I RL

or by Q2 saturating

v Omin VCC VCE2sat

Depending on the values of I and RL. The absolutely lowest

output voltage is that given by the previous equation and is
achieved provided that the bias current I is greater than the
magnitude of the corresponding load current

VCC VCE2sat
I
RL
Class A

Transfer Characteristics

Exercises D9.1 and D9.2

Class A

Signal Waveforms

1 2

vo( t ) 0 vcE1( t ) 1

1 0
0 5 10 0 5 10
t t

2
1

ic1( t ) 1
pD1( t ) 0.5

0
0 5 10 0
0 5 10
t
t
Class A

Power Dissipation

P VCC I

Largest Power Dissipation When vo = 0

Q1 must be able to withsatnd a continuous dissipation of VCC*I

The power dissipation of Q1 depends on the value of RL.

If RL is infinite, iC1 = I and the dissipation in Q1 depends on vo.
Maximum power dissipation will occur when vo = -VCC since vCE1 will be 2VCC.
pD1 = 2VCC*I. This condition would not normally persist for a prolonged interval, so
the design need not be that conservative. The average pD1 = VCC*I

When RL is zero a positive voltage would result in a theoretically infinite current (large
practical value) would flow through Q1. Short-circuit protection is necessary.
Class A

Power Conversion Efficiency

load_power PL

supply_power PS

2
1 Vo Vo average voltage
PL
2 RL

PS 2 VCC I

2
1 Vo 1 Vo Vo

4 I RL VCC 4 I RL VCC

Vo VCC Vo I RL

maximum efficiency is obtained when

Vo VCC I RL
Class A

Exercise 9.4

3
Vopeak 8 I 100 10 RL 100 VCC 10

2
Vopeak

PL
2 PL 0.32
100

Pplus VCC I Pplus 1

Pminus VCC I Pminus 1 PS Pplus Pminus

PL
0.16
PS
Class A

Power Conversion Efficiency

CLASS A
Many class A amplifiers use the same transistor(s) for both halves of the audio
waveform. In this configuration, the output transistor(s) always has current flowing
through it, even if it has no audio signal (the output transistors never 'turn off'). The
current flowing through it is D.C.
A pure class 'A' amplifier is very inefficient and generally runs very hot even when
there is no audio output. The current flowing through the output transistor(s) (with no
audio signal) may be as much as the current which will be driven through the speaker
load at FULL audio output power. Many people believe class 'A' amps to sound better
than other configurations (and this may have been true at some point in time) but a
well designed amplifier won't have any 'sound' and even the most critical 'ear' would be
hard-pressed to tell one design from another.
NOTE: Some class A amplifiers use complimentary (separate transistors for positive
and negative halves of the waveform) transistors for their output stage.
Class B CLASS 'B'
A class 'B' amplifier uses complimentary
Circuit Operation transistors for each half of the waveform.
A true class 'B' amplifier is NOT generally
used for audio. In a class 'B' amplifier, there is
a small part of the waveform which will be
distorted. You should remember that it takes
approximately .6 volts (measured from base
to emitter) to get a bipolar transistor to start
conducting. In a pure class 'B' amplifier, the
output transistors are not "biased" to an 'on'
state of operation. This means that the the
part of the waveform which falls within this .6
volt window will not be reproduced accurately.
The output transistors for each half of the
waveform (positive and negative) will each
have a .6 volt area in which they will not be
conducting. The distorted part of the
waveform is called 'crossover' or 'notch'
distortion. Remember that distortion is any
unwanted variation in a signal (compared to
the original signal). The diagram below shows
what crossover distortion looks like.

Fig. 9.5 Class B output stage.

Fig. 9.6 Transfer characteristic for the class B output stage in Fig. 9.5.
Fig. 9.7 Illustrating how the dead band in the class B transfer characteristic results in crossover distortion.
Class AB

Circuit Operation
Class AB

Output Resistance
Class AB
Calvin College - ENGR 332
Exercise 9.6 Class AB Output Stage Amplifier

Consider the class AB circuit (illustrated below) with Vcc=15 V, IQ=2 mA, RL=100 ohms.
Determine VBB. Determine the values of iL, iN, iP, vBEN, vEBP, vI, vO/vI, Rout, and vo/vi versus
vO for vO varying from -10 to 10V.
Note that vO/vI is the large signal voltage gain and vo/vi is the incremental gain obtained as
RL/(RL+Rout). The incremental gain is equal to the slope of the transfer curve.
Assume QN and QP to be matched, with IS=10E-13.
Class AB

Exercise 9.6

under quiescent conditions iN=iP=IQ vO=vI=0

Solving for VBB
13 3
VBB 1 IS 10 VT 0.025 IQ 2 10 RL 100

Given VBB
2
VT
IQ IS e

VBB Find ( VBB) i 0 100 VBB 1.186

Class AB

Exercise 9.6

vO
i i
vO 10 iL
i 5 i RL

iLi 0

10 0 10
vOi
Class AB Solving for iN

initial guesses iN 0.02 iLD 0.02 IQ 0.002

Exercise 9.6
Given
2 2
iN iLD iN IQ 0

iNN( IQ iLD) Find ( iN)

i 0 100 IQ 0.002 iLD iL

i i i

i
iN iNN IQ iL
i i
1 10
3

100
5 10
iN 4.997 10 iNi 1000
10
1
0.1
0.01
10 5 0 5 10
vOi
iP iN iLD
i i i
1 10
3

100
10
iPi 1000
1
0.1
0.01
10 5 0
iNi vOi
vBEN VT ln
i
IS
 1 10
100

Class AB iPi 1000

10
1
0.1
Exercise 9.6 0.01
10 5 0
iNi vOi
vBEN VT ln
i IS

0.6
vBENi

iPi 0.5
vEBP VT ln 10 5 0
i

IS vOi

vEBPi 0.6

10 5 0
vOi
Class AB

Exercise 9.6
VBB
vI vO vBEN
i i i 2

0
vIi

vO 10
i
vOvI 10 5 0
i vI
i vOi

vOvIi 0.5

0
10 5 0
vOi
Class AB vOvIi 0.5

Exercise 9.6 0
10 5 0
vOi
VT
Rout
i iP iN
i i
5

Rout i

0
10 5 0 5 10
RL
vovi vOi
i RL Rout
i

vovii

0.95
10 5 0 5 10
vOi
Fig. 9.30 Simplified internal circuit of the LM380 IC power amplifier (Courtesy National Semiconductor Corporation.)
Fig. 9.31 Small-signal analysis of the circuit in Fig. 9.30. The circled numbers indicate the order of the analysis steps.
Fig. 9.33 Structure of a power op amp. The circuit consists of an op amp followed by a class AB buffer similar to that discussed in
Section 9.7. The output current capability of the buffer, consisting of Q1, Q2, Q3, and Q4, is further boosted by Q5 and Q6.
Fig. 934 The bridge amplifier configuration.
Fig. 9.35 Double-diffused vertical MOS transistor (DMOS).
Fig. 9.36 Typical iD-vGS characteristic for a power MOSFET.
Fig. 9.38 A class AB amplifier with MOS output transistors and BJT drivers. Resistor R3 is adjusted to provide temperature
compensation while R1 is adjusted to yield to the desired value of quiescent current in the output transistors.
Class B Output
 Biasing the Class B Output
* No DC current is used to bias this
configuration.
*Activated when the input voltage is greater
than the Vbe for the transistors.
* npn Transistor operates when positive, pnp
when negative.
* At a zero input voltage, we get no output
voltage.
 Operation

When the input voltage rises to be large enough to overcome the Vbe, it will
begin to cause an output voltage to appear. This occurs because Qn begins to
act like an emitter follower and Qp shuts off. The input will be followed on the
emitter until the transistor reaches saturation. The maximum input voltage is
equal to the following:
vimax VCC VCENsat

The same thing will begin to happen if the input voltage is negative by more
than the Veb of the transistor. This causes the Qp to act like an emitter
follower and Qn turns off. This will continue to behave this way until saturation
occurs at a minimum input voltage of:

vimin Vcc VECPsat

 Emitter Follower Configuration
(Chapter 4)
vb 1 re parRL ro
vs RS 1 re par RL ro

vo
par ro RL
vb
re par ro RL
Rs will be small for most configurations, so
the vb/vs will be a little less than unity. The
same is true for re, so vo/vb will be a little less
than unity making our vo/vs a little less than
Characteristics of the Emitter Follower: unity.

High Input Resistance

Low Output Resistance
Near Unity Gain
Transfer Characteristic
 Push-Pull Nature of Class B
Push: The npn transistor will push the current to ground when the input is postive.

Pull: The pnp transistor will pull the current from the ground when the input is negative .
Catu Daya
+VCC

QN Daya Beban

vIN RL vO

QP -

-VCC
 Crossover Distortion

The Crossover Distortion is due to the dead band of input voltages from -.5V to .5V.
This causes the Class B output stage to be a bad audio amplifier. For large input
signals, the crossover distortion is limited, but at small input signals, it is most
pronounced.
 Graph of Crossover Distortion

Fig. 9.7 Illustrating how the dead band in the class B transfer characteristic results in crossover distortion.
 Power Efficiency
2 Since each transistor is only conducting for one-half
1 Vop of the time, the power drawn from each source will
Load Power: PL
2 RL be the same.

1 Vop
Ps VCC
LR

2 This efficiency will be at a max when Vop is at a max. Since

1 Vop
Vop cannot exceed Vcc, the maximum efficiency will occur at
PL 2 RL pi/4.

2 Ps 1 Vop
2 VCC
RL

Vop This will be approximately 78.5%,

max much greater than the 25% for
4 VCC 4
Class A.
 Small Signal Equivalent

Fig. 4.46 The common-collector or emitter-follower amplifier. (a) Circuit. (b) Equivalent circuit obtained by replacing the
BJT with its T model. (c) The circuit in (b) redrawn to show that ro is in parallel with RL. (d) Circuit for determining Ro.
Class AB Output Stage
Class AB amplifier Operation
Multisim Simulations - Operation
Class AB amplifier biasing
MultisimSimulation s - Biasing
Class AB VTC Plot
ADVANTAGE:
Class AB operation improves on Class B linearity.

DISADVANTAGES:
Emitter resistors absorb output power. 2. Power Conversion Efficiency is less
than Class B. 3. Temperature matching will be needed more so. if emitter
resistors are not used.

TRADEOFFS:
Tradeoffs - involving bias current - between power efficiency, power dissipation
and output signal swing need to be addressed.
Differential Amplifier: Common-Mode with Current Source
http://www.indiabix.com/electronics-circuits/differential-amplifier-common-mode-with-current-source/