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light?
STIMULUS: bright light
Detected by photoreceptors in the retina
Sends nerve impulses along optic nerve
Along sensory neurone
To CNS
Information is processes
Impulses are sent along parasympathetic motor
neurones
EFFECTORS: circular muscles of iris are stimulated
Circular muscles contract
Radial muscles relax
Constrict pupils
How is the impulse propagated along
a myelinated axon?
Neurone is stimulated, causing voltage-dependent Na+ channels to
open
Na+ ions diffuse into axon
Depolarisation of membrane increases (to +40mv)
Action potential is generated at Node of Ranvier
Local circuit is produced
Second action potential is generated by the first
If potential difference threshold is reached, more Na+ channels open
Voltage-dependent Na+ channels close
Voltage-dependent K+ channels open
K+ ions move out of axon, repolarising membrane
Hyperpolarisation of membrane occurs
Voltage-dependent K+ channels close
K+ ions diffuse back into axon, recreating resting potential
What is the REFRACTORY PERIOD?
A time delay between one action potential
and the next
Lasts until all voltage-dependent K+ and Na+
channels close, returning to normal resting
potential state
Ensures the impulses are UNIDIRECTIONAL:
travel in just one direction
How are impulses passed along a
MYELINATED neurone?
Depolarisation occurs at Node of Ranvier
Local electric current occurs between nodes
Potential difference is reduced at the next
node, initiating another action potential
Impulses jump from one node to the next by
SALTATORY CONDUCTION
How do Synapses transmit an impulse?
An action potential arrives at the presynaptic membrane
Membrane depolarises, causing:
Calcium ion channels to open; calcium ions enter neurone
Increased calcium ion concentration causes synaptic vesicles
(containing neurotransmitter) to fuse with presynaptic
membrane
Neurotransmitter released into synaptic cleft by EXOCYTOSIS
Neurotransmitter binds with receptor proteins on postsynaptic
membrane, causing:
Cation channels to open; Na+ ions flow through channels
Postsynaptic membrane depolarises, initiating an action
potential
When released, the neurotransmitter is either:
Taken up across the presynaptic membrane
Or it can diffuse away and be broken down
List some differences between Rods and
Cones
Rods Cones
Numbers in 20:1
Retina
Where in Retina All over Retina but ONLY fovea
not fovea
Light-sensitive Rhodopsin Iodepsin
pigment
Vision Only black & Colour vision
white vision ONLY in bright
Both dim & light
bright light
Sensitivity Intensity Wavelength
How does light reaching a rod cell result in
an action potential in the optic nerve to
the brain?
Light energy breaks rhodopsin opsin + retinal
Opsin binds to the membrane of the outer segment
Causes Na+ channels to close
Influx of Na+ ions into rod cell decreases while inner segment
continuously actively pumps out Na+ ions.
So inside of cell is more negative that outside
Causing membrane to be hyperpolarised (-90 mv)
Less inhibitory neurotransmitter is released
In bipolar cell:
Cation channels open
Membrane becomes depolarised
Generates an action potential in neurone of optic
nervebrain
Explain what each lobe of the brain
does.
FRONTAL LOBE: PARIETAL LOBE
Decision making Orientation
Reasoning Movement
Planning Sensation
Forming association: Calculation
infoideas Some types of recognition
Includes primary motor Memory
cortex:
Movement
Stores info TEMPORAL LOBE:
OCCIPTAL LOBE: (visual Processes auditory
cortex) processes
Hearing, sound, speech
Processes info from eyes
Vision, colour, perspective
Define Habituation.
Type of learning
Reduced response to an unimportant stimulus
after repeated exposure over time
Define homeostasis
The maintenance of a stable internal environment
How is habituation achieved?
With repeated stimulation, calcium ion channels become less
responsive: