Qualitative Data

Collection
http://www.slideshare.net/aditigarg.aditigarg/research-process-14719283
(Source: : Saunders et al. 2009, pp. 52)
Definition and purpose
The process of collecting descriptive, narrative,
non-numerical data in order to gain insight into
the phenomenon of interest
Data collection is determined by the nature of
the problem
The researcher must make informed decisions about
what data will contribute to the study and how to best
collect it
Commonly known as field work
in qualitative research,

 we identify our participants and sites on purposeful

sampling, based on places and people that can best help
us understand our central phenomenon
 we need greater access to the site because we will
typically go to the site and interview people or observe
them. This process requires a greater level of participation
from the site
 we collect data such as interviews, observations, and
documents. In qualitative research, our approach relies on
general interviews or observations so that we do not
restrict the views of participants. We will not use someone
else’s instrument as in quantitative research and gather
closed-ended information; we will instead collect data
with a few open-ended questions that we design.

(Creswell, 2012: 205)

in qualitative research
 we will record information on self-designed
protocols that help us organize information
reported by participants to each question
 we will administer our procedures of
qualitative data collection with sensitivity to
the challenges and ethical issues of
gathering information face-to-face and
often in people’s homes or workplaces

(Creswell, 2012: 205)

 Determining a sample

it is not necessary to collect data from

everyone in a community.
In qualitative research, the researcher needs
to define and select a sample.
The research objectives and the
characteristics of the study population
determine which and how many people to
select.

8
9 Convenience Sampling

A convenience sample is a group

of individuals who (conveniently)
are available for study.
Example:" A high school counselor
interviews all of the students who
come to her for counseling about
their carrier plans.”
https://www.mathstopia.net/sampling/convenience-sampling

http://assets.pearsonschool.com/file-vault/flipbooks/texasreview/mathematics/digits/TX_
Digits_HomeworkHelper_HTML_Files/Grade%207/Volume%202/page_368.html
 convenience sample

 is a matter of taking what you can get. It

is an accidental sample.
 although selection may be unguided, it
probably is not random, using the
correct definition of everyone in the
population having an equal chance of
being selected.
 volunteers would constitute a
convenience sample
Purposeful Sampling,
researchers intentionally select individuals and
sites to learn or understand the central
phenomenon. The standard used in choosing
participants and sites is whether they are
“information rich” (Patton, 1990, p. 169).
you may decide to study a site (e.g., one
school), several sites (three schools), individuals
or groups (students), or some combination (two
schools and several students on those schools).
Purposeful sampling thus applies to both
individuals and sites
http://research-methodology.net/sampling-in-primary-data-collection/purposive-sampling/
14 Purposive Sampling

 the researcher selects particular

elements from the population that will
be representative or informative about
the topic.
 is different from convenience sampling
in that the researcher does not simply
study whoever is available, but uses his
or her judgment to select the sample
for a specific purpose.
 snowball sample

 A subset of a purposive sample --

 achieved by asking a participant to suggest
someone else who might be willing or
appropriate for the study. Snowball samples
are particularly useful in hard-to-track
populations, such as truants, drug users,
prostitude, etc
http://slideplayer.com/slide/7070642/
 quota sample
 the researcher deliberately sets the
proportions of levels or strata within the
sample.
 generally done to insure the inclusion of
a particular segment of the population.
 the proportions may or may not differ
dramatically from the actual proportion
in the population. The researcher sets
a quota,
 Quota sampling

 Quota sampling begins with two decisions:

 What characteristics?
 How many people?
 Characteristics are selected in order to find
participants who have experience with or
knowledge of the research topic.
 The researcher goes into the community and
selects the predetermined number of people
demonstrating the pre-selected characteristics.
 Sample Size
or Number of Research Sites

 a few individuals or a few cases - overall ability of

a researcher to provide an in-depth picture -
diminishes with the addition of each new
individual or site (Creswell, 2012: 209)
 In some cases, might be a single individual or a
single site.
 In other cases, the number may be several,
ranging from 1 or 2 to 30 or 40.
 WHY???
the need to report details about each individual or
site, the larger number of cases can become
unwieldy and result in superficial perspectives.

collecting and analyzing qualitative data takes

considerable time, and the addition of each
individual or site only lengthens that time

the validity, meaningfulness and insights generated

from such studies have more to do with the
information richness of the cases selected, and the
analytical qualities of the researcher than with the
sample size
 Research Ethics

deals primarily with the interaction between

researchers and the people they study

Whenever we conduct research on people, the well-

being of research participants must be our top priority.
The research question is always of secondary
importance. if a choice must be made between
doing harm to a participant and doing harm to the
research, it is the research that is sacrificed.

http://www.ccs.neu.edu/course/is4800sp12/resources/qualmethods.pdf
 Seeking PERMISSIONS
 Institutional Review Board Approval (proposal
defence)
 Gatekeepers - an individual who has an official or
unofficial role at the site, provides entrance to a site,
helps researchers locate people, and assists in the
identification of places to study (Hammersley &
Atkinson, 1995)
- EPRD (BPPDP), State Education Department,
School Principal, teacher

 Respondent consent
 rapport
Informed Consent

is a mechanism for ensuring that people

understand what it means to participate in
a particular research study so they can
decide in a conscious, deliberate way
whether they want to participate. Informed
consent is one of the most important tools
for ensuring respect for persons during
research.

http://www.ccs.neu.edu/course/is4800sp12/resources/qualmethods.pdf
 The first task in achieving informed consent is to
inform people about the research in a way they
can understand

Individual informed consent

may be written or oral
The person should be told:

 the purpose of the research

 what is expected of a research participant, including
the amount of time likely to be required for
participation
 expected risks and benefits, including psychological
and social
 the fact that participation is voluntary and that one
can withdraw at any time with no negative
repercussions
 how confidentiality will be protected
 the name and contact information of the local lead
investigator to be contacted for questions or
problems related to the research
 the name and contact information of an appropriate
person to contact with questions about one’s rights as
a research participant (usually the chair of the local
ethics committee overseeing the research
http://www.ccs.neu.edu/course/is4800sp12/resources/qualmethods.pdf
http://resumeko.mx.tl/consent-form-sample-qualitative-research.html
 Types of Sources
 Most common
Observations
Interviews

 Others
documents (e.g., journals, files, minutes,
etc.); recordings; drawings, photos, or other
artistic endeavors; or conversations (e.g.,
telephone calls, informal conversations,
etc.)
 Any source is acceptable as long as collecting
it is ethical, feasible, and contributes to the
understanding of the phenomenon of interest
 Observations
 Obtaining data by watching participants in
their natural setting without altering or
manipulating it (Gay, Mills & Arasian, 2012:
381)
 is the process of gathering open-ended,
firsthand information by observing people
and places at a research site (Creswell,
2012: 213)
 Two common types
Participant
Non-participant
 Observations
 Participant observation
is an observational role adopted by researchers
when they take part in activities in the setting
they observe (Creswell, 2012: 214)
observer becomes a part of and a participant in
the situation being observed (Gay, Mills &
Arasian, 2012: 382)
The purpose is to allow the researcher to gain
insights and develop relationships that require
an active, trusting rapport with participants
offers excellent opportunities to see experiences
from the views of participants
requires seeking permission to participate in
activities
http://rebekkaking.files.wordpress.com/2010/08/mariposa-012.jpg
https://kimmccrory.wordpress.com/2010/12/14/creative-title-from-bontoc-or-accept-defeat-and-dance/
http://www.ketso.com/examples-case-studies/case-
studies/research
 Observations
 Disadvantage – Participant observation
 researcher may lose objectivity and become
emotionally involved with participants
 Researcher have difficulty participating and
collecting data at the same time (Gay, Mills &
Arasian, 2012: 382)
 participation can be difficult for the researcher
and the participants
 difficult to take notes while participating
 Observations
Participant observation (continued)
types based on the degree of
involvement
Active participant observer
Privileged observer – someone who
is known & trusted & given easy
access
Passive observer – most observer do
– doesn’t have a public role
 Observations
Non-participant observation
The researcher observes and records behaviors
but does not interact or participate in the setting
observer who visits a site and records notes
without becoming involved in the activities of the
participants (Creswell, 2012: 214-215)
an “outsider” who sits on the periphery or some
advantageous place (e.g., the back of the
classroom) to watch and record the
phenomenon under study
X
 Observations
Non-participant observation

Advantages
Less intrusive
Less likely to become emotionally involved

Disadvantages
The researcher might not have the background
or expertise to participate
The researcher might not fit into a closely
organized group
Observations

Changing observational role

 you might first enter a site and observe as a
nonparticipant, then slowly become involved as a
participant
 eg;
“One researcher studying the use of wireless laptop
computers in a multicultural education methods class
spent the first three visits to the class observing from the
back row. He sought to learn the process involved in
teaching the course, the instructor’s interaction with
students, and the instructor’s overall approach to
teaching. Then, on his fourth visit, students began using
the laptop computers and the observer became a
participant by teaming with a student who used the
laptop from her desk to interact with the instructor’s Web
site. “(Creswell, 2012: 215)
 Observations
 Field notes
Notes taken during an observation to
describe all relevant aspects of the
situation
are text (words) recorded by the
researcher during an observation in a
qualitative study (Creswell, 2012: 216)

Regardless of whether participant or

non-participant observation is used,
field notes are the “data”
Observation Protocol

http://www.nsta.org/publications
/news/story.aspx?id=52856
 Observations

Field notes (continued)

Two types
Written records that contain information about the
direct observations
Reflections of the researcher’s reactions to the
observation
Typically taken during the observation
Use of protocols
 A list of issues to guide the observation
 Provides focus
 Provides a common framework across field notes
http://www.revistas.unal.edu.co/index.php/profile/
article/viewFile/11438/36792/144314

http://www.scielo.org.co/img/revistas/prf
/n8/n8a03a3.gif
 Descriptive field notes record a
description of the events, activities, and
people (e.g., what happened).
 Reflective field notes record personal
thoughts that researchers have that
relate to their insights, hunches, or broad
ideas or themes that emerge during the
observation (e.g., what sense you made
of the site, people, and situation).
 Observations
 Field notes (continued)
Guidelines
Start slowly
Try to begin with no preconceptions
Write up field notes as soon as possible
List all pertinent information (e.g., date,
site, time, topic, participants, etc.)
List key words related to your observation
and then outline what was seen and
heard
 Observations
 Field notes (continued)
Guidelines
Keep the descriptive and reflective field
notes separated
Write down hunches, questions, insights,
thoughts, etc., after each observation
Create an electronic file of your field
notes
Number the lines or paragraphs in your
field notes
See the options in most word
processors
(Creswell, 2012: 217)
Three concerns
Observer bias
Invalid observation that results when the
observer does not observe objectively and
accurately
Suggestions to help control observer bias
 Record you personal thoughts, feelings,
reactions, etc., about the process
 Triangulate data – use multiple data collection
methods and multiple sources to cross-check
information
 Three concerns (continued)
Observer effect
The impact of the observer participating in
the setting
Suggestions to help control observer
effects
Try to be unassuming and non-
threatening
Gradually increase participation over
time
Three concerns (continued)
Getting started
The initial days of the study once entry has been
gained
Suggestions to minimize concerns
 Do not take what happens in the field personally
 Set up your first visit so that someone is there to introduce
you to the participants
 Don’t try to accomplish too much in the first few days
 Be relatively passive – ask general, non-controversial
questions
 Be friendly and polite
 Interviews

 Definition
Purposeful interactions between two or
more people focused on one person
trying to get information from the other
person
 Purpose
Permits the exploration and probing of
participants’ thoughts to get more in-
depth information
researchers ask one or more participants
general, open-ended questions and record
their answers - then transcribes and types the
data into a computer file for analysis
 Interviews
 Two types
Formal structured
A specific set of questions that have
been predetermined by the researcher
and are formally asked of all
participants
Informal unstructured
A casual, informal conversation that
allows the researcher to discover where
the participants are coming from and
what they’ve experienced
 Interviews
A major concern with structured
interviews
Difficulty resulting in gender and/or cultural
differences between the interviewer and
the participant
Recommended practices
Pilot the questions before using them
Use questions that vary from convergent to
divergent
Convergent – closed responses like “Yes” or “No”
Divergent – open responses allowing for personal
elaboration from the participant
http://img.docstoccdn.com/thumb/orig/42623708.png
Interview Protocol

http://images.1233.tw/semi-structured-interview/
http://betterevaluation.org/sites/default/files/Method.interviews.png
http://images.1233.tw/semi-structured-interview/
Types of Interviews
One-on-One Interviews –
 is a data collection process in which the
researcher asks questions to and records
answers from only one participant in the
study at a time.
 are ideal for interviewing participants who
are not hesitant to speak, who are
articulate, and who can share ideas
comfortably
 may use several one-on-one interviews.
 the most time-consuming and costly
approach

(Creswell, 2012: 218)

 Types of Interviews
Focus Group Interviews
 is the process of collecting data through interviews with a group
of people, typically four to six.
 The researcher asks a small number of general questions and
elicits responses from all individuals in the group.
 can be used to collect shared understanding from several
individuals as well as to get views from specific people
 are advantageous when:
 the interaction among interviewees will likely yield the best
information and when interviewees are similar to and
cooperative with each other.
 the time to collect information is limited
 individuals are hesitant to provide information (some individuals
may be reluctant to provide information in any type of
interview).
encourage all participants to talk and to take their turns talking.

(Creswell, 2012: 218)

 Types of Interviews
telephone interview
 is the process of gathering data using the telephone
and asking a small number of general questions.
 the researcher use a telephone adaptor that plugs
into both the phone and a tape recorder for a clear
recording of the interview.
 The participants in a study may be geographically
dispersed and unable to come to a central location
for an interview
 Disadvantages:
 the researcher does not have direct contact with the
participant. This causes limited communication that
may affect the researcher’s ability to understand the
interviewee’s perceptions of the phenomenon.
 the process may involve substantial costs for
telephone expenses
(Creswell, 2012: 219)
 HOW TO CONDUCT A GOOD PHONE INTERVIEW
 Expect to conduct the phone interview over lunch or
before or after work
 Time-box the interview
 Structure the interview
 Plan Accordingly
 Send them full details
 Pair Up
 Make Notes
 Compensate for a lack of visuals - by actively listening to
what is being said
 Don’t eat or drink
 Give plenty of time for questions
 End the interview like a pro
 Write up your notes
 Don’t Use a Phone - Skype, Google Hangouts or
GoToMeetings.

http://thesocialtester.co.uk/how-to-conduct-a-good-phone-interview/
 Types of Interviews

E-mail interviews
 consist of collecting open-ended data through
interviews with individuals using computers and
the internet to do so.
 provides rapid access to large numbers of people
and a detailed, rich text database for qualitative
analysis (If you can obtain e-mail lists or addresses)
 promote a conversation between the researcher
and the participants, so that through follow-up
conversations, the researcher can extend his/her
understanding of the topic or central
phenomenon being studied
Preparing your Interview Subject

Connect
with your
information
subject
the nature
of the
interview

information
length of
a deadline, if the email
applicable
interview

http://www.wikihow.com/Administer-an-Email-Interview
list of email interview questions

http://www.wikihow.com/Administer-an-Email-Interview
email interview answers

http://www.wikihow.com/Administer-an-Email-Interview
Thank your subject

http://www.wikihow.com/Administer-an-Email-Interview
 Interviews
Guidelines for conducting an interview
Listen more, talk less
Follow up on what participants say and ask
questions when you don’t understand
Avoid leading questions
Don’t interrupt – learn how to wait
Keep participants focused and ask for
concrete details
Don’t be judgmental about participants’
views or beliefs
Don’t debate participants over their
responses
 Interviews
 Three choices for collecting data
1) Taking notes during the interview
Can be cumbersome and disruptive

2) Writing notes after the interview

Can result in the loss of important
information
 Interviews
 Three choices for collecting data (cont)
3) Audiotaping or videotaping the interview
The preferred method for collecting data
Can be intrusive and disruptive

Transcribing tapes involves producing a

written file of what was said and done
Time consuming
Extremely difficult
Transcripts become the field notes of
an interview
(Creswell, 2012: 222)
Examining Records
 Examining Records
The examination of records or documents
a qualitative researcher might collect
Five major types
Archival documents
Journals
Maps
Videotapes and audiotapes
Artifacts

Documents consist of public and private records that

qualitative researchers obtain about a site or participants in a
study, and they can include newspapers, minutes of meetings,
personal journals, and letters. (Creswell, 2012: 223)
 Collecting Documents
Identify types of documents that may be
useful
Consider public and private documents
Obtain permission before using documents
Provide specific instructions if you ask
participants to keep a journal
Examine for accuracy, completeness, and
usefulness
Optically scan documents when possible

http://slideplayer.com/slide/9028763/
http://genealogy.about.com/od/basics/a/Historical-
Document-Analysis.htm
 Types of document
 Public Documents
 minutes from meetings, official memos, records in
the public domain, and archival material in libraries.
 Private Documents
 personal journals and diaries, letters, personal notes,
and jottings individuals write to themselves.
 Both Public And Private Documents
 e-mail comments and Web site data illustrate, and
they represent a growing data source for qualitative
researchers
ready for analysis without the necessary transcription
 Disadvantages:
 documents are sometimes difficult to locate
and obtain.
 information may not be available to the
public.
 information may be located in distant
archives, requiring the researcher to travel,
which takes time and can be expensive
 the documents may be incomplete,
inauthentic, or inaccurate
Collecting Audiovisual Materials

Determine what material can provide

evidence to address your research
questions
Determine what visual material is
available and obtain permission to use it
Check the accuracy and authenticity of
the material if you do not record it
yourself
Collect the data and organize it

http://slideplayer.com/slide/9028763/
 Steps in Collecting Qualitative Data

 identify participants and sites to be studied and to engage

in a sampling strategy that will best help you understand
your central phenomenon and the research question you
are asking.
 gain access to these individuals and sites by obtaining
permissions.
 once permissions are in place, you need to consider what
types of information will best answer your research
questions.
 at the same time, you need to design protocols or
instruments for collecting and recording the information.
 you need to administer the data collection with special
attention to potential ethical issues that may arise