Motivation

Motivation may be defined as some driving force within individuals by

which they attempt to achieve some goal in order to fulfill some need
or expectation.

Characteristics of motivation

•It is unique to the individual.

•It is an intended choice and under the worker's direct control.
•It is not the behaviour itself but rather the force or actions that arise.
•It does not necessarily lead to performance
 Types of Motivation
• Intrinsic Motivation
Motivation derived from performing the job
itself

• Extrinsic Motivation
Motivation received from others
 Needs and Motivation (Content theories)

Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs

Herzberg 2 factor theory
 Behaviour Theories and Motivation

• Theory X and Theory Y –McGregor

 Process Theories
• Expectancy Theory (Victor Vroom 1964)
Suggests that people are not necessarily motivated by internal needs, but
more by the expectation that certain actions will achieve an outcome seen
that they see as desirable.
He argues that employees perform well when they can see a connection
between effort, performance and reward.
In theory, extra effort will lead to better performance, and improved job
performance will lead to outcomes such as promotion, extra responsibility
and more pay.
The details of this connection involve a complex interplay of the concepts of
"valence", "instrumentality" and "expectancy". In brief, in Vroom's terms,
these are as follows:
 Valence is the strength of preference for a particular outcome; it ranges
from a negative valence, where the individual strongly prefers not to
attain the outcome, to positive valence where the individual strongly
prefers to attain the outcome, through "zero" valence where the individual
is indifferent to the outcome.
 Instrumentality is the extent to which one outcome will lead to another –
for example, improved performance in the present job will lead to
promotion.
 Expectancy is the extent of the probability that a particular effort or action
will lead to a particular outcome.
 Equity Theory (J Stacey Adams)
It focuses on people's feelings of how fairly they have been treated in comparison with
the treatment received by others. It builds on the idea of perceived equitable
rewards and argues that people strive to achieve a situation of balance –or equity
–in terms of the perceived ratio of inputs to outcomes in relation to a "comparison
other".
 The "comparison other" is often a very individual selection, based on attributes
which we consider appropriate to our particular circumstances, although it may be
influenced by group membership. Thus, it could be another individual in the same
workgroup, a friend who works in another organisation or even a generalised
conception based on certain known or assumed characteristics.
 The inputs that we might consider in assessing the balance include those related
to effort and performance outcomes, as well as skills, educational background,
domestic and social circumstances, etc.
 Outcomes are similarly broad in scope –including pay, social esteem and
recognition, work assignments, office space and furniture, etc.
Situations of inequity exist where the inputs–outcomes ratio is perceived to be either
less than or greater than that of the comparison other.
Managers should recognise that workers have a number of means at their disposal for
evening up the perceived inequity. Possibilities include changing the level of value
of your input (arriving late/being absent/reducing your effort/paying less attention
to quality) and transferring to another situation.
 Goal Setting Theory - Latham and Locke
• The essence of goal theory is to bring individuals to
share the goals of the organisation; only in this way can
organisations be made effective and efficient and
individuals encouraged to achieve their full potential.
• Latham and Locke developed goal theory by combining
the ideas of management by objectives (MBO) (where
staff focus on the end results of their activities rather
than the activities themselves by agreeing
performance targets/goals with their
supervisors/managers) and motivation theory.
• The essence of their approach is that people are more
motivated and achieve higher performances when they
are set specific goals, when these goals stretch them,
when the goals have been agreed between superior
and subordinate and when employees receive
feedback on their progress at regular intervals.
 The Practical Implications of Content Theories
• Managers have found them simple, easy to understand and therefore to apply. They provide a
good framework for classifying needs.

• Maslow's theory, which is the simplest of those considered, allows the manager to feel in control of
motivation –it, therefore, prompts managers to think more deeply about employee needs and their
satisfaction.

• Herzberg's theory is also viewed as readily applicable to business situations –although not all
individuals want challenging work. As we have seen, it is a refined way of looking at satisfaction
anddissatisfaction at work and concentrates on the key topic of job re-design.

• These theories identify work-related factors that could trigger motivation but nothing to do with
the process itself –this is the province of process theories.

• They tend to ignore potentially important characteristics of motivation, such as individual

differences.

• They are universal theories that assume a common set of needs. This suggests a greater ability to
predict behaviour than is realistic. Needs, in any case, have been shown to vary between countries
and are culturally determined.

• They are the product of American theorists who draw distinct lines between home and work. This
is not the case in many other countries, e.g. Italy and Spain and africa

• Each theory has its own implications. McGregor's Theory X, for example, results in autocratic
management, using rewards and punishments for control and retaining all decisions at the centre.
Theory Y results in a democratic and employee-centred style of management.
 Implications to the CEO

• The relative growth in executive salaries in recent years would seem to suggest
that they are more motivated by money than production line workers.

• Theorists have, however, portrayed the CEO as an example of "self-actualising

man", seeking to satisfy his or her highest level needs through work (i.e.
achievement and recognition from building up an excellent company). CEOs seek
challenge and purpose in their job and opportunities to harness their self-
fulfilment needs.

• Motivation is, however, more complex than this and Schein pointed out that
individuals are capable of being motivated in different ways in different
environments.

• Vroom's expectancy theory also applies to CEOs, since they, of all people, will
consider the likely outcomes of their actions, weigh and evaluate the
attractiveness of alternatives and use these as the basis for decisions.

• Handy's motivational calculus also informs the CEO's decision to act by making
motivation depend on the individual's own needs, the desired results and the E
factors of effort, energy, excitement, enthusiasm, emotion and expenditure.
 Implications to the 1st line supervisor
• As members of management with responsibility for production line employees,
first line supervisors are likely to respond to higher order (e.g. esteem) needs

• The use of motivators will be more effective than giving attention to the hygiene
factors of Herzberg. Hygiene factors only create dissatisfaction if they are absent
but don't provide positive motivation. Pay, working conditions, security and
supervisory relationships only satisfy level one–two needs.

• Motivators, such as the work itself, recognition, responsibility, advancement and

achievement satisfy level four–five needs, and are much more relevant to the case
of the supervisor.

• Supervisors are much more likely to conform to Theory Y. They see work as natural
and not only accept but seek responsibility. They will be self-directed and exercise
self-control in their commitment to organisational objectives.

• A participative management style will make employees and first line supervisors
feel valued.