Chapter 5

Cost estimation for various processes

Cost estimation

A cost estimate is the approximation of the cost of a program, project, or

operation. The cost estimate is the product of the cost estimating process.
• The cost estimate has a single total value and may have identifiable
component values.
• A problem with a cost overrun can be avoided with a credible, reliable,
and accurate cost estimate.
• An estimator is the professional who prepares cost estimates.
• There are different types of estimators, whose title may be preceded by
a modifier, such as building estimator, or electrical estimator, or chief
estimator.
In cost engineering, cost estimation is a basic activity. A cost engineering related to the
capital investment cost estimation and operating cost estimation. The fixed capital
investment provides the physical facilities. The working capital investment is a revolving
fund to keep the facilities operating.
• In system, product, or facility acquisition planning, a cost estimate is used to evaluate the
required funding and to compare with bids or tenders.
• In construction contracting, a cost estimate is usually prepared to submit a bid or tender to
compete for a contract award.
• In facility maintenance and operation, cost estimates are used to establish funding or
budgets.
• In an attempt to manage liability risk, some firms avoid the use of the word estimate and
instead refer to the estimate as an "Opinion of Probable Cost."
Cost estimate types
Various projects and operations have distinct types of cost estimating, which vary in their
composition and preparation methods. Some of the major areas include:
•Construction cost (i) detailed construction estimate (ii) abstract construction estimate
•Manufacturing cost
•Software development cost
•Aerospace mission cost
•Resource exploration cost
•Facility operation cost
•Facility maintenance and repair cost
•Facility rehabilitation and renewal cost
•Facility retirement cost
 TYPES OF COST ESTIMATES
The accuracy of conceptual cost estimates are
approximately – 30% to + 50%. The cost
estimation methods used at this level are
(a) Factor method,
(b) Material cost method, and
(c) Function method.
One classification system for cost estimates is based on design level
when the product is designed. The three levels of design considered are :
(i) Conceptual design,
(ii) Preliminary design, and
(iii) Detailed design.
(a) Factor Method of Cost Estimation
According to this method :
Estimated cost of an item = Factor for total cost estimate × Amount of major cost item
Some examples of factor are :
(i) Cost of construction per km of highway.
(ii) Cost of fabricated component per kg of casting.
(iii) Cost of house construction per SQ.M. of livable space.
Example 1 : If a casting weighed 15 kg, and the factor of the cost of casting per kg of
casting is
Rs. 75, what is the estimated cost of the casting ?
Estimated cost of the casting = Rs. 75 per kg of casting × wt. of the casting (= 15 kg)
= Rs. 1125 per casting
(b) Material Cost Method of Estimation
Material cost method predicts the total cost of the product based on the ratio of the
material cost of the product to the material cost share of the total cost.
According to this method :
𝐸𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑚 =
𝑀𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑏𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑
𝑀𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑏𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 (𝑖𝑛 %)
This method is used for complex assemblies :

Example 2 :If the material cost of an

automobile was Rs. 2.50 Lakhs, what
would be the total cost of the automobile
? Use the table data.
Estimated total cost of automobile = Rs.
2.50 Lakhs/0.65= Rs. 3.85 Lakhs
(c) Function Method of Cost Estimation
This method is also referred to as Parametric cost estimating.
This method is similar to the factor method, but more variables are used. Function method
uses a mathematical expression with constants and parameters derived for specific process,
such as casting or machining or for specific classes of parts based on material, size, weight
or other cost parameters.
According to this method :

Estimated cost of an item = G × (a + b) + (R × c) + (N × d)

where G = Weight of the item, kg

a = Material cost per kg
b = Tolerance cost per, kg
R = Weight of material Removed, kg
c = Cost per kg of material removed
N = No. of dimensions of a product surface
d = Cost per dimension
Other types of cost estimates are based on the following :

(i) Product comparison : The new product is compared with existing products (of similar
function, design etc.) and adjustments/modifications are made for the differences.

(ii) Data base calculations : The product cost estimate is determined from cost data bases
which a company is expected to maintain over a period of time (Historical Cost Data
Base).

(iii) Detailed cost functions and/or parametric cost estimation : The product cost estimate
is determined using parametric cost estimation technique. All variables or parameters of
process, part features and other cost parameters are considered in cost estimation.
The total cost of running and maintenance of machines can be divided into
two parts–
Fixed costs and Variable costs.

The meaning of fixed costs and variable costs, in general is given below.

Fixed costs : The fixed costs are the items of expenditure which remain more or less
constant irrespective of the volume of production. Some important items under fixed costs
are include of plant and machinery and building, interest on capital, supervisory
charges, cost of lighting, heating and cleaning the works, operator charges, rent of
building etc.

Variable costs : Variable costs are those items of expenditure which vary with the volume
of production. Some important items under variable costs are direct material cost, cost of
power/fuel consumed, cost of tools used, cost of consumable stores, repair and
maintenance charges, storage charges, etc.
1. Fixed Costs
(i) Depreciation : Depreciation is defined as the reduction in the value of an asset, machinery,
equipment or building with passage of time due to various reasons, such as wear and tear, and
obsolescence. Whether we use the machine or not its value is decreasing with passage of time.
(ii) Interest on capital amount : Interest on capital amount invested in the purchase of the machine is
also considered in calculating hourly cost of running the machine. The rate of interest is that which
the capital amount would have yielded if that amount is invested in a bank. The interest on capital is
constant whether the machine is being used or not.
(iii) Supervisory charges : Supervisory charges include the wages of supervisors, foremen, inspectors
etc., who supervise the production. These wages are calculated for a year for a particular
department. The supervisory charges are distributed over the total number of machine-hours
available in a year in that department.
(iv) Operator charges : If the operator of the machine is paid on monthly basis his wages are also
included in the fixed costs and considered in calculating the hourly charges of running the machine.
(However, if the operator is paid on piece rate basis, then the operator charges form a part of
variable costs, since the operator charges are proportional to the number of pieces produced).
(v) Rent of building : The rent of space occupied by the machine is independent of the volume of
production. The proportion of rent of building considered in hourly cost of running of machine is
calculated by dividing the rent of building space by machine-hours available in one month.
2. Variable Costs
(i) Power (or energy) or fuel consumed : Cost of power or fuel consumed in running the machine
varies with the volume of production. The power charges are then distributed on each machine in the
department and hourly cost of power consumed is calculated. The total power cost includes the
expenses made on salary of the power plant-incharge and other staff, expenses for repair and
maintenance of power plant, depreciation of plant and machinery in power house and cost of coal and
fuel (if used) or electricity bill.
(ii) Repair and maintenance charges : The repair and maintenance charges of a machine generally
depend on the extent of the usage of the machine. Higher is the volume of production, higher will be
the wear and tear and hence more expenses on repair and maintenance. If the repair of the machinery is
got done from some outside parties, then the charges are taken from the repairers bill. But in all
medium and large organisations, a separate maintenance department looks after the work of repair and
maintenance. In such cases, a record of all the expenditure involved in the maintenance of equipment is
made and the total cost of repair and maintenance over a year is computed.
(iii) Consumable stores and other charges : The expenditure incurred on consumables like
lubricants, coolants, oils, cotton waste and small tools depends on the volume of production. The cost
of clerical work involved in the operation of stores, cost of storage space required and cost of labour
required for handling the materials etc., are dependent on the volume of production and form a part of
variable expenses.
HOURLY COST OF RUNNING AND MAINTENANCE OF A MACHINE

=(Fixed costs/Machine life in hours) + Variable costs per hour

The hourly cost of running and maintenance of a machine has to be calculated before
we an calculate the total cost of any component requiring machining operations.
The cost of using a particular machine for one component is given by :

C=T×R

where C = Cost of using a particular machine for making one component.

T = Machine hours required to make one component.
R = Hourly rate of running and maintenance of machine. =
Example 1 : In a small factory making toys, the fixed overhead costs are Rs. 5,000 per
month and the variable cost is Rs. 4 per piece. The selling price is Rs. 6 per piece.
Estimate the minimum monthly production so that the factory may not suffer any loss.

Example 2 : In a factory fixed overhead charges are Rs. 45,000 and the variable
overhead charges are Rs. 2.50 per article. The factory is producing 45,000 articles per
month under normal conditions. Find :
(i) Overhead cost per article under normal conditions.
(ii) If the production drops to 80 percent, calculate the charges that remain uncovered.
(iii) If the production increases to 125 percent, by what amount these charges will be
over-recovered.
Take the overhead rate per article the same as during normal production, in both the
cases.
Example 3 : A manufacturing concern purchased two identical machines each for Rs. 15,000.
If depreciation of the machines is on the basis of machine-hours and if the two machines are to
share the rent, lighting, water charges etc., proportional to floor area occupied by the machine,
workout the machine-hour rate from the given data :
Scrap value of each machine after 10 years = Rs. 2,500
Machine-hours/year/machine = 2,200
Power consumption per hour per machine = 10 Units
Rate per Unit of power consumed = Rs. 3
Maintenance and repair charges/year/machine = Rs. 150
Overhead charges per machine per year = Rs. 160
Workshop rent per year = Rs. 12,000
Lighting, water charges per year = Rs. 600
Floor space occupied by each machine = 20 per cent of floor space of works