CHAPTER 6

LOGIC
 INTRODUCTION TO LOGIC

Which of the following statements are true?

All circles are white.
All white things are circles.
All squares are black.
All black things are squares.
 BASIC TERMS

LOGIC is the study of the

techniques and principles used to
differentiate accurate reasoning from
inaccurate reasoning. The aim of the
study of logic is to find and create a
standard used to evaluate arguments
and to classify good arguments from
bad ones.
 BASIC TERMS

A PROPOSITION is the building

block of an argument. It is something that
may be asserted or denied. A question,
command, and exclamation cannot be
asserted or denied. Only propositions
can assert that something is true or false.
The terms “proposition” and “statement”
are used in the same sense in this text.
 BASIC TERMS

A SENTENCE is an idea
expressed in words like a question,
command, and exclamation. They
express no judgement of what is right
or wrong.
 TASK #1 :
PROPOSITIONS vs SENTENCES
Just as ideas are expressed in words, which are called sentences, so
also judgements are expressed in statements, which are called propositions.
In this task, write S if the statement is only as sentence and P if it is a
proposition. If it is a proposition, write if it is true or false.

1. The average of 5 and 7 is 12.

2. Liz, can you lend me Php100?
3. Yehey!!!
4. Squares are rectangle.
5. Please turn your cellular phones off upon entering the bank premises.
6. Teachers are our modern heroes.
7. The slope of the line of f(x)=3x-5 is 5.
8. Quadrilaterals have four equal sides.
9. Why was this life’s cursed, wretched threat not cut the day we had part?
10. The logarithmic function is the inverse of the exponential function.
BASIC STRUCTURE OF A PROPOSITION

Basic to all propositions are four parts:

S: Subject term – is the part designating
the idea about which the assertion is
made.

P: Predicate term – is the part designating

the idea which is asserted or denied of the
subject
BASIC STRUCTURE OF A PROPOSITION

C: Copula such as “are” and “are not” – is

expressing the present act of the idea hence
the verb “to be” is used in the present tense
even though the assertion is past or yet to be
made. It is the copula which makes the
proposition affirmative or negative.
Q: Quantifiers such as “all”, “some”,
“no”– it specifies the quantity of the
proposition
 EXAMPLES

1. All are loving beings.

2. All trees are not students.

 TASK #2 :
BASIC STRUCTURE OF A PROPOSITION
In the following propositions, write S above the word for the
subject, P above the word/s for the predicate and C above the word/s
for the copula.

1. All natural born Filipinos are citizens of the Republic of the

Philippines.
2. Everyone who knows how to work and save for the rainy day is a
person who will not go hungry.
3. All flowers are fragrant things.
4. Some animals are objects of worship.
5. Ants are insects.
6. A dolphin is a mammal.
7. Some teachers are chefs.
8. A book is not useless.
9. SISC is a member of SGEN.
10. No stingray is a shark.
 SYMBOLS FOR PROPOSITIONS
In propositional logic, a capital letter is used to
represent a simple statement. Simple statements are
short and do not contain other statements as a part.
Capital letters, such as, A, B, and C can be assigned to
symbolize these statements.

Examples:
A: Every Filipino has the right to vote.
B: Cancer can be prevented.
C: Poverty is a factor for the increasing criminal incidents.
 QUANTITY OF A PROPOSITION:
UNIVERSAL and PARTICULAR

A proposition has a quantity. It is either universal or

particular. If a proposition refers to all members of a
group by its subject term, its quantity is universal. If the
proposition refers to only some members of a group by its
subject term, its quantity is particular.

UNIVERSAL: All, No

PARTICULAR: Some
 QUANTITY OF A PROPOSITION:
AFFIRMATIVE and NEGATIVE
The quality of a proposition is set by the copula. It
is either affirmative or negative. If a proposition asserts
an idea for a particular or universal group, its quality is
affirmative. If a proposition denies an idea for a
particular or universal group, its quality is negative.

An affirmative proposition for a particular group is symbolized by I.

An affirmative proposition for a universal group is symbolized by A.

A negative proposition for a particular group is symbolized by E.

A negative proposition for a universal group is symbolized by O.

 EXAMPLES
Affirmative Negative

Universal and Particular A: All S are P. E: No S is P

Particular I: Some S are P. O: Some S are not P.

Proposition Translation into a Proposition

Whales are mammals. All whales are mammals.

Whales are found in the Palawan

Some whales are found in the Palawan islands.
Islands.
If a cable is underground, it is not
No underground cable is easy to repair.
easy to repair.

Not all ocean dwellers are fish. Some oceans dwellers are not fish.
 TASK #3 :
QUANTITY and QUALITY OF PROPOSITIONS
Translate each sentence into an A, E, I, or O proposition. If the
sentence can be translated into different forms in different contexts,
give one translation and specify a context in which it seems
appropriate.

1. Bats are not birds.

2. Not all crabs live in water.
3. Some things that are cheap are good.
4. Somebody loves you.
5. If anything is broken, it does not work.
6. All who graduate from a degree course get rich.
7. There is no one who hates chocolates.
8. Our pitbull is a good pet.
9. My friends are the only ones who care.
10. Nothing that is purple is an apple.