Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Basic Principles of
Ultrasonic Testing

Theory and Practice

M. Berke - 02.05.2001 Krautkrämer, Hürth - Product Training ‹#›

 Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Examples of oscillation

ball on pendulum rotating

a spring earth

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 Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Pulse
The ball starts to oscillate as soon as it is pushed

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 Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Oscillation

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 Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Movement of the ball over time

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 Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Frequency

Time

One full
From the duration of one oscillation T
oscillation T the frequency f
(number of oscillations per
second) is calculated:
T
f 
1

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 Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

The actual displacement a is

termed as:

a  A sin 
a
Time
0 90 180 270 360
Phase

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 Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Spectrum of sound

Frequency
range Hz Description Example

0 - 20 Infrasound Earth quake

20 - 20.000 Audible Speech, music

sound
> 20.000 Ultrasound Bat, Quartz crystal

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 Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Atomic structures
gas liquid solid

high density
low density medium density strong bonding forces
weak bonding medium
forces bonding forces crystallographic
structure

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 Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Understanding wave propagation:

Ball = atom Spring

= elastic bonding force

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 Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

distance travelled

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 Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

During one oscillation T the wave front

propagates by the distance :
T

Distance travelled

From this we derive:

T
c c  f
 or Wave equation

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 Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Sound propagation

Longitudinal wave Direction of propagation

Direction of oscillation

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 Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Sound propagation

Transverse wave Direction of propagation

Direction of oscillation

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 Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Wave propagation
Longitudinal waves propagate in all kind of materials.
Transverse waves only propagate in solid bodies.
Due to the different type of oscillation, transverse waves
travel at lower speeds.
Sound velocity mainly depends on the density and E-modulus
of the material.
Air
330 m/s
Water
1480 m/s
Steel, long
5920 m/s
Steel,
3250 m/s
trans

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 Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Reflection and Transmission

As soon as a sound wave comes to a change in material

characteristics ,e.g. the surface of a workpiece, or an internal
inclusion, wave propagation will change too:

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 Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Behaviour at an interface

Medium 1 Medium 2

Incoming wave Transmitted wave

Reflected wave
Interface

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 Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Reflection + Transmission: Perspex - Steel

1,87

Incoming wave 1,0 Transmitted wave

0,87

Reflected wave

Perspex Steel

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 Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Reflection + Transmission: Steel - Perspex

Incoming wave Transmitted wave

1,0

0,13

-0,87
Reflected wave

Perspex Steel

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 Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Amplitude of sound transmissions:

Water - Steel Copper - Steel Steel - Air

strong reflection no reflection strong reflection with

inverted phase
double single
transmission transmission no transmission

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 Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Piezoelectric Effect

+
Battery

Piezoelectrical
Crystal (Quartz)

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 Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Piezoelectric Effect

The crystal gets thicker, due to a distortion

of the crystal lattice

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 Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Piezoelectric Effect

The effect inverses with polarity change

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 Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Piezoelectric Effect
Sound wave
with
frequency f

U(f)

An alternating voltage generates crystal

oscillations at the frequency f

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 Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Piezoelectric Effect

Short pulse
( < 1 µs )

A short voltage pulse generates an oscillation

at the crystal‘s resonant frequency f0

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 Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Reception of ultrasonic waves

A sound wave hitting a piezoelectric crystal, induces crystal
vibration which then causes electrical voltages at the crystal
surfaces.

Electrical Piezo-
Ultrasonic wave
energy electrical crystal

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 Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Ultrasonic Probes
socket Delay / protecting face
crystal Electrical matching
Damping Cable

Straight beam probe TR-probe Angle beam probe

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 Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

RF signal (short)

100 ns

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 Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

RF signal (medium)

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 Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Sound field

Crystal Focus Angle of divergence

Accoustical axis
6
D0

N
Near field Far field

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 Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Ultrasonic Instrument

0 2 4 6 8 10

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 Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Ultrasonic Instrument

- +
Uh

0 2 4 6 8 10

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 Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Ultrasonic Instrument

+ -
Uh

0 2 4 6 8 10

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 Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Ultrasonic Instrument
+
Uv
-

+ -
Uh

0 2 4 6 8 10

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 Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Block diagram: Ultrasonic Instrument

amplifier

screen horizontal
IP
BE sweep

clock

pulser
probe
work piece

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 Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Sound reflection at a flaw

s

Probe
Sound travel path
Flaw

Work piece

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 Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Plate testing

IP

BE

delamination 0 2 4 6 8 10
plate
IP = Initial pulse
F = Flaw
BE = Backwall echo

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 Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Wall thickness measurement

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Basic Principles of
Ultrasonic Testing

s
Theory and Practice
s

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Corrosion 0 2 4 6 8 10

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 Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Through transmission testing

Through transmission signal

1 T R 1

2 T R 2
0 2 4 6 8 10

Flaw

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 Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Weld inspection
a = s sinß
F ß = probe angle
a' = a - x s = sound path
s a = surface distance
a‘ = reduced surface distance
d' = s cosß d‘ = virtual depth
d = actual depth
0 20 40 60 80 100
d = 2T - t' T = material thickness

a
x a'

ß d
Lack of fusion
Work piece with welding s

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 Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Straight beam inspection techniques:

Direct contact, Direct contact, Fixed delay
single element probe dual element probe

Through transmission Immersion testing

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 Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Immersion testing
1 2

surface = water delay

sound entry

flaw
backwall

IP 1 IP
IE IE 2

BE BE
F

0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10

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