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Physical Origins
and
Rate Equations
Chapter One
Sections 1.1 and 1.2
Heat Transfer and Thermal Energy
+
U Thermal energy of system
u Thermal energy per unit mass of system
Modes of Heat Transfer
q k T
dT T T
qx k k 2 1
dx L
T1 T2
qx k
L
q h Ts T
G Gsur Tsur4
hr Ts Tsur
qrad
hr : Radiation heat transfer coefficient W/m2 K
hr Ts Tsur Ts2 Tsur2
Schematic:
Assumptions: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) Radiation exchange between a small surface and a large enclosure, (3)
Negligible heat transfer from sides of chip or from back of chip by conduction through the substrate.
Analysis:
Pelec qconv qrad hA Ts T A Ts4 Tsur4
A L2 0.015m 2.25×10-4 m 2
2
Chapter One
Section 1.3
Alternative Formulations
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
(FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS)
• An important tool in heat transfer analysis, often
providing the basis for determining the temperature
of a system.
• Alternative Formulations
Time Basis:
At an instant
or
Over a time interval
Type of System:
Control volume
Control surface
CV at an Instant and over a Time Interval
Surface Phenomena
E in E out :
, rate of thermal and/or mechanical energy transfer across the control
surface due to heat transfer, fluid flow and/or work interactions.
Volumetric Phenomena
Eg : rate of thermal energy generation due to conversion from another energy form
(e.g., electrical, nuclear, or chemical); energy conversion process occurs within the system.
Q W Esttot
For negligible changes in potential or kinetic energy
Q W Ut
Internal thermal energy
At an instant
dU t
q W
dt
Example 1.4
dU t dT
Mc
dt dt
Latent Heat
of Fusion
U t U lat Mhsf
Open System
(ii) Steady State for Flow through an Open System without Phase Change or
Generation:
At an Instant of Time:
2
m ut pv V gz q m ut pv V 2 gz W 0
2 •
2 in out
• pv flow work
• ut pv i enthalpy
• For an ideal gas with constant specific heat:
iin iout c p Tin Tout
• For an incompressible liquid:
uin uout c Tin Tout
pv in pv out 0
V
2
2 in
V
2
2 out
0
gz in gz out 0
Surface Energy Balance
Consider surface of wall with heat transfer by conduction, convection and radiation.
qconv
qcond qrad
0
k
T1 T2
L
h T2 T 2 T24 Tsur
4
0
Methodology
KNOWN: Silicon wafer positioned in furnace with top and bottom surfaces exposed to hot
and cool zones, respectively.
FIND: (a) Initial rate of change of the wafer temperature from a value of Tw,i 300 K, and (b)
steady-state temperature. Is convection significant? Sketch the variation of wafer temperature
with vertical distance.
SCHEMATIC:
•
Problem: Silicon Wafer (cont.)
ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Wafer temperature is uniform, (2) Hot and cool zones have uniform
temperatures, (3) Radiation exchange is between small surface (wafer) and large enclosure
(chamber, hot or cold zone), and (4) Negligible heat losses from wafer to pin holder.
ANALYSIS: The energy balance on the wafer includes convection to the upper (u) and lower
(l) surfaces from the ambient gas, radiation exchange with the hot- and cool-zones and an energy
storage term for the transient condition. Hence, from Eq. (1.12c),
E in E out E st
or, per unit surface area
d Tw
h qrad,
qrad, c qcv,
u qcv,
l cd
dt
4
Tsur, 4
4 4
h Tw Tsur,c Tw hu Tw T hl Tw T cd
d Tw
dt
(a) For the initial condition, the time rate of change of the wafer temperature is determined
using the foregoing energy balance with Tw Tw,i 300 K,
0.65 5.67 108 W / m 2 K 4 15004 3004 K 4 0.65 5.67 108 W / m 2 K 4 3304 3004 K 4
0.65 15004 Tw,ss
4
K 4 0.65 3304 Tw4, ss K 4
8 W / m 2 K Tw,ss 700 K 4 W / m 2 K Tw,ss 700 K 0
To assess the relative importance of convection, solve the energy balances assuming no
convection. With dTw / dt i 101 K/s and Tw, ss 1262 K , we conclude that the radiation
exchange processes control the initial rate of change and the steady-state temperature.
If the wafer were elevated above the present operating position, its temperature would
increase, since the lower surface would begin to experience radiant exchange with
progressively more of the hot zone. Conversely, by lowering the wafer, the upper surface
would experience less radiant exchange with the hot zone, and its temperature would decrease.
The temperature-distance relation might appear as shown in the sketch.
Problem: Cooling of Spherical Canister
535 J/kg·K
KNOWN: Inner surface heating and new environmental conditions associated with a spherical
shell of prescribed dimensions and material.
FIND: (a) Governing equation for variation of wall temperature with time and the initial rate of
change, (b) Steady-state wall temperature and, (c) Effect of convection coefficient on canister
temperature.
Problem: Cooling of Spherical Canister (cont.)
SCHEMATIC:
ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Negligible temperature gradients in wall, (2) Constant properties, (3) Uniform,
time-independent heat flux at inner surface.
PROPERTIES: Table A.1, Stainless Steel, AISI 302: = 8055 kg/m3, c p = 535 J/kgK.
ANALYSIS: (a) Performing an energy balance on the shell at an instant of time, Ein Eout Est .
Identifying relevant processes and solving for dT/dt,
4
qi 4 ri2 h 4 ro2 T T ro3 ri3 c p
3
dT
dt
dT
3 q r 2 hr 2 T T .
dt c r r
3 3 i i o <
p o i
Problem: Cooling of Spherical Canister (cont.)
qi 4 ri2 h 4 ro2 T T
2 2
qi ri 105 W/m2 0.5m <
T T 300K 439K
h ro 2
500W/m K 0.6m
(c) Parametric calculations show a sharp increase in temperature with decreasing values of h < 1000
W/m2K. For T > 380 K, boiling will occur at the canister surface, and for T > 410 K a condition known
as film boiling (Chapter 10) will occur. The condition corresponds to a precipitous reduction in h and
increase in T.
Problem: Cooling of Spherical Canister (cont.)
Although the canister remains well below the melting point of stainless steel for h = 100 W/m2K, boiling
should be avoided, in which case the convection coefficient should be maintained at h > 1000 W/m2K.
COMMENTS: The governing equation of part (a) is a first order, nonhomogenous differential equation
with constant coefficients. Its solution is S/ R 1 e Rt i e Rt , where T T ,
S 3qi ri2 / c p ro3 ri3 , R 3hro2 / c p ro3 ri3 . Note results for t and for S = 0.
Second law
For a reversible heat engine neglecting heat transfer effects between the
heat engine and large reservoirs, the Carnot efficiency is
W Q T
C 1 out 1 c
Qin Qin Th
where Tc and Th are the absolute temperatures of large cold and hot reservoirs,
respectively.
For an internally reversible heat engine with heat transfer to and from the
large reservoirs properly accounted for, the modified Carnot efficiency is
W Qout qout Tc,i
m 1 1 1
Qin Qin qin Th,i
• Heat transfer resistances associated with, for example, walls separating the
internally reversible heat engine from the hot and cold reservoirs relate the
heat transfer rates to temperature differences:
Th Th,i qin Rt ,h
Tc,i Tc qout Rt ,c
Tc
m 1 where Rtot Rt , h Rt ,c
Th qin Rtot