Elements of Materials

Science and Engineering

ChE 210
Instructor: Dr. Ahmed Arafat, PhD

Office: building 45 room 106

E-mail: akhamis@kau.edu.sa
www.kau.edu.sa.akhamis  files
 Book
Elements of Materials Science and
Engineering
Sixth Edition

Lawrence H. van Vlack

 Chapters
Chapter 1: Introduction to Materials Science and Engineering
Chapter 2: Atomic Bonding and Coordination
Chapter 3: Crystals (atomic order)
Chapter 4: Disorder in solid phases
Chapter 5: Phase Equilibria
Chapter 6: Reaction rates
Chapter 7: Microstructures
Chapter 8: Deformation and Fracture
Chapter 9: Shaping Strengthening and Toughening Processes
 Grading

• Presence: = 5%
• Major Exam I = 1 x 10% = 10 %
• Major Exam II = 1 x 15% = 15 %
• Quizzes: 2 x 5% = 10 %
• Laboratory = 20 %
• Final Exam= 40 %
Introduction to Materials Science and Engineering

• Materials and civilization

• Material and Engineering
• Structure properties Performance
• Types of materials
 Historical Perspective
Stone → Bronze → Iron → Advanced materials
• Beginning of the Material Science - People began to
make tools from stone – Start of the Stone Age about
two million years ago.
Natural materials: stone, wood, clay, skins, etc.
The Stone Age ended about 5000 years ago with
introduction of Bronze in the Far East.
• Bronze is an alloy (a metal made up of more than one
element), copper + < 25% of tin + other elements.
Bronze: can be hammered or cast into a variety of
shapes, can be made harder by alloying, corrode only
slowly after a surface oxide film forms.
Historical
• The Iron Age began about 3000 years ago and
continues today. Use of iron and steel, a stronger and
cheaper material changed drastically daily life of a
common person.

• Age of Advanced materials: throughout the Iron Age

many new types of materials have been introduced
(ceramic, semiconductors, polymers, composites…).
Understanding of the relationship among structure,
properties, processing, and performance of
materials. Intelligent design of new materials.
Historical
understanding the structure-composition-properties lead to a
remarkable progress in properties of materials. e.g. the strength :
density ratio of materials, resulted in a variety of new products,
from dental materials to tennis racquets.
Materials and Civilization (1)
• Materials are integral part of human culture
• In the past: Stone, Bronze and Iron ages

• Role of Engineer: Adapting materials and energy to society’s

needs

• The properties of materials depends on the

internal structure

• To change the performance of materials,

modification of the internal structure is required
Materials and Civilization (2)
• Human are able to make things: Objects tools, component
systems

• This require materials to meet these purposes

• Anthropolgists and historians identified the early cultures by

the most significant materials used then, e.g. Stone, the
Bronze. and the Iron Ages of the past

• These days, are not limited to one predominant material. A

lot of sophisticated materials-plastics, silicon, titanium, high-
technology ceramics, optical fibers, and so on
• The age of technology.
Materials and Engineering (1)
• Engineer, design products and systems and
monitor their use

• Every product is made of materials and energy

is involved in production and in use.

• This is why all Engineers have to study materials

science during their undergraduate study
Structure
Length-scales

Angstrom = 1Å = 1/10,000,000,000 meter = 10-10 m

Nanometer = 10 nm = 1/1,000,000,000 meter = 10-9 m
Micrometer = 1µm = 1/1,000,000 meter = 10-6 m
Millimeter = 1mm = 1/1,000 meter = 10-3 m

• Interatomic distance ~ a few Å

• A human hair is ~ 50 µm
• Elongated bumps that make up the data track on CD
are ~ 0.5 µm wide, minimum 0.83 µm long, and 125
nm high
Properties
Types of Materials
Metals: valence electrons are free moving, and spread in an
'electron sea' that "glues" the ions together. Strong, ductile,
conduct electricity and heat well, are shiny if polished.
Semiconductors: the bonding is covalent. Their electrical
properties depend strongly on minute proportions of
contaminants. Examples: Si, Ge, GaAs.
Ceramics: composed of ions, and are bound by Coulomb forces.
They are usually combinations of metals or semiconductors
with oxygen, nitrogen or carbon, Hard, brittle, insulators.
Examples: glass, porcelain.
Polymers: are bound are covalent bonded or weak van der
Waals bonded, based on C and H. They decompose at
moderate temperatures (100 – 400oC), and are lightweight.
Examples: plastics rubber.
Types of Materials
Metals: valence electrons are free moving, and spread in an
'electron sea' that "glues" the ions together. Strong, ductile,
conduct electricity and heat well, are shiny if polished.
Semiconductors: the bonding is covalent. Their electrical
properties depend strongly on minute proportions of
contaminants. Examples: Si, Ge, GaAs.
Ceramics: composed of ions, and are bound by Coulomb forces.
They are usually combinations of metals or semiconductors
with oxygen, nitrogen or carbon, Hard, brittle, insulators.
Examples: glass, porcelain.
Polymers: are bound are covalent bonded or weak van der
Waals bonded, based on C and H. They decompose at
moderate temperatures (100 – 400oC), and are lightweight.
Examples: plastics rubber.
Engineering Properties of Materials

L
Electrical resistance R     ohm
A
Electrical Conductivity
Charge flux along voltage gradient () ohm-1 = 1/R

Thermal Conductivity
Energy flux along thermal gradient (K) W/m* oC
Resistivity

Reciporical of electrical conductivity () , ohm * m

Engineering Properties of Materials

Stress (s): Force per unit area, N/m2 or MPa [psi]

Strength (S): critical stress for failure, N/m2 or MPa [psi]

Strain (e) Dimensional response to stress, fraction or %
Ductility: Elastic strain prior to fracture

Elastic modulus:(E) ratio of stress/elastic strain N/m2 MPa [psi]

Hardness: Resistance to penetration

Toughness: Energy absorbed prior to fracture

Structure ↔ Properties ↔ Performance

• Poorly available materials  rarely used

• Extensively used materials iron, steel,
paper, concrete, water, plastics.
• There extensive subdivision of all the
above materials
• Materials must be modified in such a way
that it can be easily used, e.g. gears
 Example 1-2.1
A copper wire has a diameter of 0.9 mm. (a) what is the resistance of a
30 cm wire? (b) How many watts are expected if 1.5 volts dc are applied
across 30 m of this wire?
Solution
 = 17 ohm.nm,

 L
R   
 A
9  0.3m 
R  17 x10 ohm.m    0.008 ohm
2 
 (/4)(9x10 m) 
-4

Power( watts)  volts.amps  EI  E 2 / R, sin ce E  IR

E2 E 2 (1.5V ) 2 ( / 4)( 9 x104 m ) 2
P    2.8 watt
R L 9
(17 x10 ohm.m)( 30m)
 Example 1-2.2
Which part has a greater stress: (a) a rectangular aluminium bar
of 24.6 mm x 30.7 mm cross-section, under a load of 7640 Kg,
and therefore, a force of 75000 N or (b) a round steel bar whose
cross-sectional diameter is 12.8 mm, under 5000 Kg load?
Solution
Pounds
Units 
Newtons
 pascals
Units   psi
(m)( m) (in )(in )

(16.800)
(a )
(7640)(9.8 )
 100 MPa (a )  14.300 psi
(0.0246)( 0.0307) (0.97)(1.21)

(5000)(9.8 ) (11000)
( b)  380 MPa ( b)  55.000 psi
( / 4)( 0.0128) 2
( / 4)( 0.505) 2
Mechanical Behaviour
A material changes in shape when forces are applied on. This change in
dimensions is called deformation.

Strain: is the amount of deformation per unit length.

Stress: is the force per unit length.

Energy is absorbed during deformation of a material because work must be

done by applying force along the deformation distance.

Strength: is the amount of stress required to cause the material to fail.

Ductility: identifies the amount of strain at failure.
Toughness: relates to the amount of energy absorbed by a material
during failure.
Since strength and ductility tend to be incompatible, the designer must
often optimize between the two parameters.
Mechanical Behaviour

b) Ductile material with yield

a) non-ductile material with
point.
no plastic deformation
e.g. Low carbon steel
e.g. Cast Iron

BS: Breaking Stength, YP: yield point and TS Tensile strength

Mechanical Behaviour

Ductile material without

marked yield point
e.g. aluminium True stress-strain curve
Mechanical Behaviour
Initially, strain is proportional to stress and shows reversible behaviour.
i.e. When stress is removed the strain disappears.
The modulus of elasticity (Young’s Modulus) is the ratio between the stress
 and the reversible strain .

E = /
The units of young’s modulus is psi or pascals.

The value of elastic modulus is a measure of the interatomic bonding forces

and relates to the rigidity of engineering designs.

at higher stresses, permanent displacement can occur among the atoms

within a material. In this case much of the strain is not reversible when the
applied stresses are removed. In contrast with previous (elastic) strain this is
called plastic strain.
Mechanical Behaviour

During the processing of materials plastic strain is needed

while in product applications one has to design at stresses
within the elastic range.
Ductility may be expressed as elongation viz (Lf – Lo)/Lo or
L/Lo and is dimensionless.
However, since elongation is commonly localized in the necked
down area, the amount of elongation depends on the grain
size.
A second measure of ductility is reduction in area: (Ao – Af)/Ao
or A/Ao at the point of fracture. This does not require gauge
length.
There is no exact correlation between the two.
Mechanical Behaviour

Strength (and Hardness).

The ability of a material to resist plastic deformation is called
the yield strength (ys).

This is calculated by dividing the force required to initiate the

yield (first plastic deformation) by the cross-sectional area.

In mild steel the yield strength is marked by a definite yield

point is not well defined, the yield strength is defined as that
stress required to produce 0.2% plastic offset.
Mechanical Behaviour

The Tensile Strength (TS)

Is calculated by dividing the maximum load by the original
cross-sectional area. (while the true stress is based on the
actual area). The engineer often uses nominal stress because
he makes his calculation on the basis of original dimensions.

Because the cross-sectional area of a ductile material may be

reduced considerably before it breaks.

The breaking strength (BS) may be less than the tensile

strength.
Mechanical Behaviour

Hardness is the resistance of a material to penetration of its

surface. The hardness and strength are related so that for a
wide range of metallic materials strength increases with
hardness.
Mechanical Behaviour

The Brinell Hardness Number (BHN) is a hardness index

calculated from the area of penetration by a large identer.

The Rockwell Hardness (R) is measured by the depth of

penetration by a small identer.

Toughness: is the measure of the energy to break the

materials. H is force x distance and is expressed in Joules.
Mechanical Behaviour

A ductile material with the same strength as a non-ductile

(brittle) material will require more energy for breaking and will
be tougher.

There are several ways of measuring this quantity.

Charpy and Izod are two examples.

The shape of lost piece, method of applying the energy and
geometry of stress concentrations are important.
True Stress-strain curve

While nominal stress is defined as the force applied per unit

area of the original cross-section of a test piece, this value
does not indicate the real stress experienced by the material,
because the cross-section of a test piece under increasing
force decreases progressively.

Therefore, the true stress in the material increases with strain

continuously. Force
 true stress,  
True area
A formula for the true strain may be derived as follows:
True Stress-strain curve

dL
The instantane ous strain d 
L
L
dL L
Hence ,  tr    ln
Lo
L Lo

For plastic deformation it is assumed that:

Ao Lo  A L
Ao
  tr  ln
A
True Stress-strain curve

The diagram below compares the nominal and true stress-

strain curves