1.

DNA, RNA structure

2. DNA replication

3. Transcription, translation
DNA and RNA are polymers of nucleotides

• DNA is a nucleic acid, made of long chains of

nucleotides
Phosphate
group

Nitrogenous
base
Nitrogenous base
Sugar
(A, G, C, or T)
Phosphate
group
Nucleotide

Thymine (T)

Sugar
(deoxyribose)

DNA nucleotide
Polynucleotide Sugar-phosphate backbone Figure 10.2A

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 • DNA has four kinds of bases, A, T, C, and G

Thymine (T) Cytosine (C) Adenine (A) Guanine (G)

Pyrimidines Purines

Figure 10.2B

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 • RNA is also a nucleic acid
– different sugar
– U instead of T
– Single strand, usually
Nitrogenous base
(A, G, C, or U)

Phosphate
group

Uracil (U)

Sugar
(ribose) Figure 10.2C, D

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DNA is a double-stranded helix

• James Watson and Francis Crick worked out

the three-dimensional structure of DNA, based
on work by Rosalind Franklin

Figure 10.3A, B

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 • Hydrogen bonds between bases hold the
strands together: A and T, C and G
Hydrogen bond

Ribbon model Partial chemical structure Computer model

Figure 10.3D

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 Untwisting and replication of DNA

• each strand is a template for a new strand

helicase

DNA polymerase

Figure 10.4B

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 • Each strand of the 5 end 3 end

double helix is P
oriented in the
opposite direction
P P

P P

P P

3 end 5 end
Figure 10.5B

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 3
DNA polymerase
5
• DNA
molecule
5 end
Daughter strand

polymerase Parental DNA synthesized

continuously
5

works in 3 Daughter
strand
synthesized
only one 3
in pieces

P
direction 5

• Telomere
sequences
are lost 5 telomeres
with each
P
3

replication.
• Cancer, DNA ligase

aging Overall direction of replication

Figure 10.5C
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• The information constituting an organism’s
genotype is carried in its sequence of bases

– The DNA is transcribed into RNA, which is

translated into the polypeptide

DNA

TRANSCRIPTION

RNA

TRANSLATION

Protein

Figure 10.6A

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Transcription produces genetic messages in the
form of mRNA

RNA RNA nucleotide

polymerase

Direction of
transcription
Template
strand of DNA
Figure 10.9A
Newly made RNA

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 RNA polymerase

• In transcription, DNA of gene

DNA helix unzips Promoter

DNA Terminator
DNA
Initiation
– RNA nucleotides line
up along one strand
of DNA, following the
base-pairing rules Elongation Area shown
in Figure 10.9A

– single-stranded
messenger RNA peels
away and DNA Termination
Growing

strands rejoin
RNA

Completed RNA

RNA
Figure 10.9B polymerase
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 Eukaryotic RNA is processed before leaving
the nucleus

• Noncoding DNA
Exon Intron Exon Intron Exon

segments, Cap
Transcription
Addition of cap and tail

introns, are RNA

transcript
spliced out with cap
and tail
Introns removed Tail

• A cap and a tail Exons spliced together

are added to mRNA

the ends Coding sequence

NUCLEUS

CYTOPLASM

Figure 10.10

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 Translation of nucleic acids into amino acids

• The “words” of the DNA “language” are triplets

of bases called codons
– The codons in a gene specify the amino acid
sequence of a polypeptide

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 Gene 1 Gene 3

DNA molecule

Gene 2

DNA strand

TRANSCRIPTION

RNA

Codon
TRANSLATION

Polypeptide
Amino acid
Figure 10.7

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Virtually all organisms share the same genetic code
“unity of life” Second Base

U C A G
UUU UCU UAU UGU U
phe tyr cys
UUC UCC UAC UGC C
U ser
UUA UCA UAA stop UGA stop A
leu
UUG UCG UAG stop UGG trp G
CUU CCU CAU his CGU U
CUC CCC CAC CGC C
C leu pro arg

Third Base
First Base

CUA CCA CAA gln CGA A

CUG CCG CAG CGG G
AUU ACU AAU AGU U
asn ser
AUC ile ACC AAC AGC C
A thr
AUA ACA AAA AGA A
lys arg
AUG met (start) ACG AAG AGG G
GUU GCU GAU GGU U
asp
GUC GCC GAC GGC C
G val ala gly
GUA GCA GAA GGA A
glu
GUG GCG GAG GGG G
 • An exercise in translating the genetic code
Transcribed strand

DNA

Transcription

RNA

Start Stop
codon Translation codon

Polypeptide
Figure 10.8B

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Transfer RNA molecules serve as interpreters
during translation

• In the cytoplasm, a
Amino acid attachment site

ribosome attaches
to the mRNA and
translates its
message into a Hydrogen bond

polypeptide
• The process is aided RNA polynucleotide chain

by transfer RNAs

Anticodon
Figure 10.11A

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 • Each tRNA molecule has a triplet anticodon on
one end and an amino acid attachment site on
the other

Amino acid
attachment
site

Anticodon
Figure 10.11B, C

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 An initiation codon marks the start of an
mRNA message

AUG = methionine
Start of genetic message

End

Figure 10.13A

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 • mRNA, a specific tRNA, and the ribosome
subunits assemble during initiation

Large
Initiator tRNA ribosomal
subunit
P site
A site

Start
codon Small ribosomal
mRNA subunit

1 2

Figure 10.13B

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 Elongation

• The mRNA moves a codon at a time relative to

the ribosome
– A tRNA pairs with each codon, adding an amino
acid to the growing polypeptide
– A STOP codon causes the mRNA-ribosome
complex to fall apart

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 Amino acid

Polypeptide
A
P site site
Anticodon

mRNA
1 Codon recognition

mRNA
movement

Stop
codon

New 2 Peptide bond

peptide formation
bond

3 Translocation Figure 10.14

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Table 14.2
Types of RNA

Type of RNA Functions in Function

Messenger RNA Nucleus, Carries DNA
(mRNA) migrates sequence
to ribosomes information to
in cytoplasm ribosomes

Transfer RNA Cytoplasm Provides linkage

(tRNA) between mRNA
and amino acids;
transfers amino
acids to ribosomes

Ribosomal RNA Cytoplasm Structural

(rRNA) component
of ribosomes
Review: The flow of genetic information in the cell
is DNARNAprotein

• The sequence of codons in DNA spells out the

primary structure of a polypeptide
– Polypeptides form proteins that cells and
organisms use

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 Mutations can change the meaning of genes

• Mutations are changes in the DNA base

sequence
– caused by errors in DNA replication or by
mutagens
– change of a single DNA nucleotide causes
sickle-cell disease

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 Normal hemoglobin DNA Mutant hemoglobin DNA

mRNA mRNA

Normal hemoglobin Sickle-cell hemoglobin

Glu Val

Figure 10.16A

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 • Types of mutations
NORMAL GENE

mRNA
Protein Met Lys Phe Gly Ala

BASE SUBSTITUTION

Met Lys Phe Ser Ala

BASE DELETION Missing

Met Lys Leu Ala His

Figure 10.16B

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 •Chromosomal changes can be large or small
Deletion

Homologous
chromosomes Duplication

Inversion

Reciprocal
translocation

Nonhomologous
chromosomes Figure 8.23A, B

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 • Summary of DNA
TRANSCRIPTION

transcription
Stage 1 mRNA is
and mRNA
RNA
transcribed from a
DNA template.
translation
polymerase

Amino acid
TRANSLATION
Stage 2 Each amino
Enzyme acid attaches to its
proper tRNA with the
help of a specific
enzyme and ATP.
tRNA

Initiator Anticodon
tRNA Stage 3 Initiation of
Large polypeptide synthesis
ribosomal
subunit The mRNA, the first
tRNA, and the
ribosomal subunits
Start Small
Codon ribosomal come together.
mRNA
subunit

Figure 10.15

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 New
peptide
Growing bond Stage 4 Elongation
polypeptide forming
A succession of tRNAs
add their amino acids to
the polypeptide chain as
the mRNA is moved
through the ribosome,
one codon at a time.
Codons
mRNA
Polypeptide

Stage 5 Termination
The ribosome recognizes
a stop codon. The poly-
peptide is terminated and
Stop Codon released.

Figure 10.15 (continued)

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