Diesel Cycle

P 2
3 𝑃𝑉 𝛾 = 𝐶 T 3
𝑞𝐴
𝑞𝐴 s=C
2
4 s=C 4
𝑞𝑅
a 1 1 𝑞𝑅

𝑣𝑐 𝑣𝑠 v s
b) T-s diagram
𝑣1
Figure: Diesel cycle
a) P-v diagram
Process a-1: It is the suction stroke at atmospheric pressure.
Process 1-2: It is the isentropic compression stroke where both the temperature and pressure get
increased but the entropy remains constant.
Process 2-3: It is the heat addition at constant pressure.
Process 3-4: It is the isentropic expansion process where both temperature and pressure get
decreased, entropy remains constant.
Process 4-1: It is the heat removal at constant volume.
Process 1-a: It is the exhaust stroke at constant atmospheric pressure.
 Thermal Efficiency of Diesel, 𝛈𝐃𝐢𝐞𝐬𝐞𝐥
Assuming unit mass
• Heat added, q A = cp T3 − T2
• Heat rejected,qR = cv T4 − T1
• The work done, w = qA − qR = cp T3 − T2 − cv T4 − T1
• The efficiency of the cycle is
w cp T3 −T2 −cv T4 −T1 cv T4 −T1
• ηth = = =1− =1−
qA cp T3 −T2 cp T3 −T2
T4 −T1
γ T3 −T2
cp
∵γ=
cv
• Here,
𝑣1
• Compression ratio, 𝑅𝑐 =
𝑣2
𝑣4
• 𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜, 𝑅𝑒 =
𝑣3
𝑣3
• 𝐶𝑢𝑡 − 𝑜𝑓𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜, 𝜌 = ⇒𝑣3 = 𝜌𝑣2
𝑣2
𝑣 𝑣 𝑅
• 𝑁𝑜𝑤, 𝑅𝑒 = 4 = 1 = 𝑐
𝑣3 𝜌𝑣2 𝜌
• Applying isentropic law to process 1-2 and 3-4
𝑇2 𝑣 𝑇2
• = ( 1 )𝛾−1 = (𝑅𝑐 )𝛾−1 ⇒ 𝑇1 = 𝛾−1 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑇1 𝑣2 (𝑅𝑐 )
𝑇3 𝑣 𝑅 𝑇
• = ( 4 )𝛾−1 =(𝑅𝑒 )𝛾−1 = ( 𝑐 )𝛾−1 ⇒ 𝑇4 = 𝑅𝑐 3𝛾−1
𝑇4 𝑣3 𝜌 (𝜌)

• Substituting the values of T1 and T4 in efficiency expression

𝑇3 𝑇2
𝑅 − 𝛾−1
( 𝜌𝑐 )𝛾−1 (𝑅𝑐 )
• 𝜂𝑡ℎ = 1 −
𝛾(𝑇3 −𝑇2 )
• Applying the constant pressure law to process 2-3
𝑣2 𝑣3 𝑣3
• = ⇒ 𝑇3 = 𝑇2 = 𝜌𝑇2
𝑇2 𝑇3 𝑣2
• Putting the value of T3 in the above efficiency equation
𝑻𝟐 𝝆 𝑻𝟐
𝜸−𝟏 −
𝑹𝒄 (𝑹𝒄 )𝜸−𝟏
𝝆 𝟏 𝟏 𝝆𝜸 −𝟏
• 𝜼𝒕𝒉 = 𝟏 − =𝟏− [ ]
𝜸 𝝆𝑻𝟐 −𝑻𝟐 𝜸 (𝑹𝒄 )𝜸−𝟏 𝝆−𝟏
• This expression indicates that the efficiency increases
with increasing compression ratio but decreases with
decreasing cut-off ratio. For practical reason the
compression ratio is limited from 15 to 22.
 Diesel Cycle Operation
• The Diesel cycle is the cycle used in the Diesel
(compression-ignition) engine
• In this cycle the heat is transferred to the working
fluid at constant pressure
• The process corresponds to the injection and
burning of the fuel in the actual engine
• The cycle in an internal combustion engine consists
of induction, compression, power and exhaust
strokes.
 Induction Stroke
• The induction stroke in a Diesel engine is used to draw in a new volume of
charge air into the cylinder
• As the power generated in an engine is dependent on the quantity of fuel
burnt during combustion and that in turn is determined by the volume of air
(oxygen) present, most diesel engines use turbochargers to force air into the
cylinder during the induction stroke
• From a theoretical perspective, each of the strokes in the cycle complete at
Top Dead Centre (TDC) or Bottom Dead Centre (BDC), but in practicality, in
order to overcome mechanical valve delays and the inertia of the new charge
air, and to take advantage of the momentum of the exhaust gases, each of the
strokes invariably begin and end outside the 0, 180, 360, 540 and 720 (0)
degree crank positions
 Compression Stroke
• The compression stroke begins as the inlet valve closes and the
piston is driven upwards in the cylinder bore by the momentum of
the crankshaft and flywheel
• The purpose of the compression stroke in a Diesel engine is to raise
the temperature of the charge air to the point where fuel injected
into the cylinder spontaneously ignites
• In this cycle, the separation of fuel from the charge air eliminates
problems with auto-ignition and therefore allows Diesel engines to
operate at much higher compression ratios than those currently in
production with the Otto Cycle
 Compression Ignition
• Compression ignition takes place when the fuel
from the high pressure fuel injector spontaneously
ignites in the cylinder
• In the theoretical cycle, fuel is injected at TDC, but
as there is a finite time for the fuel to ignite
(ignition lag) in practical engines, fuel is injected
into the cylinder before the piston reaches TDC to
ensure that maximum power can be achieved
• This is synonymous with automatic spark ignition
advance used in Otto cycle engines.
 Power Stroke
• The power stroke begins as the injected fuel spontaneously
ignites with the air in the cylinder
• As the rapidly burning mixture attempts to expand within the
cylinder walls, it generates a high pressure which forces the
piston down the cylinder bore
• The linear motion of the piston is converted into rotary motion
through the crankshaft
• The rotational energy is imparted as momentum to the flywheel
which not only provides power for the end use, but also
overcomes the work of compression and mechanical losses
incurred in the cycle (valve opening and closing, alternator, fuel
injector pump, water pump, etc.)
 Exhaust Stroke
• The exhaust stroke is as critical to the smooth and
efficient operation of the engine as that of induction
• As the name suggests, it's the stroke during which
the gases formed during combustion are ejected from
the cylinder
• This needs to be as complete a process as possible,
as any remaining gases displace an equivalent volume
of the new charge air and leads to a reduction in the
maximum possible power
 Exhaust and Inlet Valve Overlap
• Exhaust and inlet valve overlap is the transition between the exhaust and inlet
strokes and is a practical necessity for the efficient running of any internal
combustion engine
• Given the constraints imposed by the operation of mechanical valves and the
inertia of the air in the inlet manifold, it is necessary to begin opening the
inlet valve before the piston reaches Top Dead Centre (TDC) on the exhaust
stroke
• Likewise, in order to effectively remove all of the combustion gases, the
exhaust valve remains open until after TDC
• Thus, there is a point in each full cycle when both exhaust and inlet valves are
open
• The number of degrees over which this occurs and the proportional split
across TDC is very much dependent on the engine design and the speed at
which it operates.
 How to Start a Diesel Engine
• Gas powered engines and diesel powered engines ignite
differently
• Gas powered engines start when the fuel is ignited by a
spark from a spark plug
• In contrast, diesel engines are ignited by the heat caused by
compression
• In a diesel truck, the fuel and air must get hot enough to
create combustion, which then creates the spark to start the
engine. Because heat is necessary to start a diesel truck, the
process for starting it is different than starting a gas engine
• Follow these steps to start a diesel truck.
 Step I: Turn the key to the start position without turning the engine on.
• You will see the
"wait to start"
light on the
dash. Do not
attempt to start
the engine until
the light
disappears.
 Step II: Wait for the glow plugs to heat up before attempting to start
• Heating the glow plugs takes up to 15 seconds
• The "wait to start" light won't go out until the glow plugs are ready
• During cold weather, the glow plugs will take longer to heat
• Check the glow plugs or intake heater before the cold weather season to
ensure your truck will start during cold days
• A glow plug is a device with a heating element that heats up the air in the
diesel truck to start the vehicle
• Another method of heating the air is to use an intake heater. In cold weather,
your diesel truck won't start without the assistance of 1 of these 2 parts.
• Get new batteries if necessary. Have 2 good batteries in the truck at all times.
Diesel trucks have 2 batteries to start the engine and heat the glow plugs
• If the batteries are in poor condition, the extra cranking of the engine to try
to start it will affect the quality of the glow plugs, flood the engine and run
down the batteries to the point that the engine won't start.
Step III: Start the engine, but allow it to crank for no more than 30 seconds.
• If the truck doesn't start within 30 seconds, turn the key to the off
position.
 Step IV: Attempt to start the vehicle again by heating the glow plugs
• This will require turning the key to the on position and waiting until the
"wait to start" light goes out again
 Step V: Turn the key to the start position and allow the engine to crank for no more than
30 seconds
• If the engine doesn't start, turn the key to the off position and try the following:
• Plug the truck into an electrical outlet
• Diesel trucks have a 3-prong plug located under the front bumper or grill area
• Using an extension cord, plug the truck into an outlet. You will hear the block
heater turn on
• When the glow plugs or intake heater aren't working properly, your truck won't
start because there's no combustion
• Plugging the truck in will allow the block heater to create the heat necessary for
combustion to start the truck.
• Leave the truck plugged in for at least 2 hours before you try to restart the vehicle
• It will take this long to heat coolant in the engine block. If it still won't start, seek
the assistance of a diesel mechanic.
 Fuel Supply System in Diesel Engine
• Fuel supply system is a separate system used to deliver
diesel at correct time in correct quantity, to a diesel engine
(or C.I engine), for smooth and efficient operation
• The operation of a diesel engine is different from that of a
petrol engine
• In a petrol engine, air-fuel mixture is supplied by a
carburetor to the engine, at the beginning of the suction
stroke
• But in a diesel engine, fuel (without air) is supplied at the
end of the compression stroke, by means of a fuel supply
system
Diagram of fuel supply system in diesel engine
 Components
Fuel supply system in diesel engine is made of the
following components:
• Diesel tank or reservoir
• Low pressure pump
• Filter
• Fuel injection pump
• Fuel injectors
1. Diesel tank or reservoir:
• Whenever you supply fuel to a diesel engine vehicle, it is stored in the diesel tank
• Diesel tank temporarily stores diesel that is to be supplied to the engine
2. Low pressure pump:
• It pumps the diesel at a low pressure to the fuel injection pump through a filter
3. Filter:
• Before diesel is supplied to an engine, it must be filtered to remove any unwanted
impurities. Filter is used for this purpose.
4. Fuel injection pump:
• This is the most important component of the fuel injection system.
• Fuel injection pump pressurizes the fuel to the required level and injects it correctly
at the end of the compression stroke, during each cycle of operation of the engine.
5. Fuel injectors:
• Injectors are devices used to inject the fuel to the cylinder. In diesel engine, when
fuel is injected, it is automatically atomized.
 Working
• Diesel is pumped from the diesel tank by a low pressure pump
• It is passed through a filter
• The filter removes any unwanted impurities in the diesel.
• Filtered diesel is supplied to the inlet port of the fuel injection pump
• The fuel injection pump automatically pressurizes the diesel to the
required level and supplies it to the fuel injector
• The fuel injector forces the fuel into the cylinder at the end of the
compression stroke, during each cycle of operation of the engine
• Fuel injection pump is operated by means of a cam shaft
• Any leak-off diesel from the fuel injection pump is supplied back
into the filter as shown in the diagram above
 Characteristics of a good fuel supply system

• A good fuel supply system should be able to

deliver the fuel correctly at the end of the
compression stroke
• It must be able to properly atomize the fuel
• It must operate smoothly and sharply during
each cycle of operation of the engine
• It must be able to supply the fuel above
atmospheric pressure
 Cooling system
Water cooling system
The water cooling system is further subdivided into two groups
1. Thermos-syphon or natural circulation system
2. Forced circulation system
• Thermos-syphon system: the force (pressure head) required to circulate the water
through the system is the difference in the pressure head due to hot and cold water.
• This force is given by
𝐹 = ℎ 𝑤𝑐 − 𝑤ℎ = ℎ. ∆𝑤
Where,
h= height of the radiator tubes through which water circulated
wc = weight density of cold water
wh = weight density of hot water
• The difference in density is limited as the
rise in temperature of water passing
through the engine is limited
• The rate of circulation is less as the force
causing the flow of water is limited
• This cannot be used for heavy duty
engine as heat carrying capacity of this
system is limited
• The water as passed through the radiator
is cooled by the flow of air passed over
the radiator tubes by cooling fan
• The cooled water rises through cylinder
jacket; take the heat from cylinder wall
and then enters into the radiator from
the top header and comes down
• It is cooled as it passed through the
radiator tubes
 Limitations of the system
• The engine should place as low as possible in relation to the
radiator as the force causing the flow is limited by the temperature
difference of hot and cold water
• Water level should not fall below the level of the delivery pipe;
otherwise the circulation of water in the system will stop
• This causes the boiling of water and formation of steam resulting
in further loss of water which may damage the engine in a short
period
• The use of this system is recommended for small capacity engines
• For higher capacity pump is used for circulating the water
water-cooled system
 Advantages and disadvantages of water-cooled system
Advantages
• Specific fuel consumption of water-cooled engine is less than air-cooled engine
• Uniform cooling of valve, cylinder head and cylinder is possible with water cooling
• It is necessary to keep the engine at the front for the mobile vehicles and air craft
engines for air cooling but this is not at all necessary with water cooled engines
• The cooling system can be located conveniently at required place
• As far as design of cooling system is concerned, the engine size does not involve any
serious problem
• Compact engine design with minimum frontal area is possible
Disadvantages
• It is dependent on supply of water
• Serious damage may cause to the engine within a short period of time in case of
failure of cooling system
• The pump requires considerable power compare with power required for fan
• Initial and maintenance cost are higher
 Antifreeze solutions
• when temperature of atmosphere falls below 00C, there is every possibility of
freezing the water, circulated in the cooling system of engine
• The freezing of water may stop the circulation and finally it may reduce the
cooling
• It may also cause damage due to volume expansion during freezing
• To prevent the freezing during cold weather conditions, the antifreeze
solutions are generally used.
They are
A solution of alcohol and water
Solution of ethylene glycol and water
• The percentage of antifreeze used in water is dependent on the atmospheric
temperatures. Higher percentage are used with decreased atmospheric
temperature.
 Air cooling system
• In air cooling system block and cylinder head are made with deep fins on
outside.
• The heat transfer coefficient of air-cooling is very low.
• This heat transfer coefficient can be increased by using a forced flow of air
over the engine surface.
• The heat transfer coefficient with air cooling with forced circulation is also
considerably low (50 W/m2.K) compare with water cooling
• The cooling fins are either cast integral with the cylinder and cylinder
head or they are fixed to the cylinder block separately
• The no. of fins used are 2 to 3 in case of cast fins and 4 to 5 in case of
machined fins per centimeter
• Height of the fins depends upon the type of the material and
manufacturing process used
• Generally height of the fins used lies between 2 cm to 5 cm
 Advantage and disadvantage of air-cooled system
Advantages
• The design of air-cooled system is simple and less costly
• Each cylinder of multi-cylinder engine can be removed separately as no common cooling
system is used
• It is easy to renew in case of accident
• There is no danger of leakage of the coolant
• Freezing in cooling system is not at all a danger which is very common in Water cooling
system
• The installation of air cooled system I easy as it does not require radiator, headers and piping
system
• The weight of the cooling system per BP of the engine is far less than water cooling system
Disadvantages
• The cooling capacity is very much limited
• It cannot be used for large capacity engines
• Heat transfer coefficient is low
• Engine is always subjected to higher temperature compared to water cooling system
 Noise abatement
What is Noise?
• A popular definition of noise is ‘an undesirable sound’
• To what extent a sound can be characterized as noise is, of course, a personal
evaluation
• However, if the sound level is so high as to be damaging to health, it will
normally be considered by one and all as undesirable and, therefore, as noise.
• Sound is the result of mechanical vibrations occurring in an elastic medium,
e.g. air
• When the air starts to pulsate, the variations in air pressure will spread from
the source through the transfer of energy from molecule to molecule
• The more energy transferred, the higher the sound level.
• One of the main problems with a diesel engine is the loud sound that the
engine produces
• This sound is produced by the fuel igniting inside the engine
• The engine makes more sound than a traditional fuel engine because the fuel
is filtered less and has more particles inside the fuel
• Older diesel engines are usually much louder than new engines, because
newer technology has enabled the engines to run much softer
• You can help reduce the amount of noise the engine makes by making a few
modifications to oil, fuel and insulation
No.1
Switch out your regular diesel oil for noise-reducing oil
Choose oils designed to reduce diesel engine noise with the addition of agents
inside the oil designed to eliminate some of the noises produced by loud diesel
engines
 You can find noise-reducing oils at most auto supply stores.
No.2
Choose fuel that has the cetane number recommended for
your diesel engine
 Your car or truck’s operating manual will specify what
cetane number or rating is recommended for your engine
 Choosing fuel with that cetane number will help eliminate
much of the loud diesel engine noise by changing the
ignition delay and reducing the noise produced by the
engine
No.3
Install a sound-dampening hood mat under the vehicle’s hood to absorb
the noise produced by the engine
 These insulating mats are inexpensive, and most clip to the edges of the
hood or are installed with automotive adhesive
 This will muffle much of the sound produced by a loud diesel engine
No.4
Replace the rubber seals around all of the doors and windows inside the
vehicle
 This will help reduce the amount of engine noise that you can hear inside
the vehicle
 For most cars and trucks, the rubber seals will simply slip off with the use
of a flathead screwdriver
 You can then slide the new seal back over the doors and windows to
reduce the amount of sound heard inside the car
Engine oil
• Use a synthetic engine oil instead of a regular mineral oil in the
engine
• Synthetic oils are about 4-5 times more expensive than regular oils
for the engine, but they also are far superior with much better
lubrication
• Some synthetics have chemicals like PTFE (also known as Teflon) that
coat all moving parts and reduce friction as well as noise in the engine
• Additives
In case you find adding synthetic oil is too expensive for your car, you can also
add an oil additive to the vehicle which can perform a similar function of
coating the moving parts with a very smooth coating that will reduce friction
and noise to some degree
 STP oil additive and Nulon are two such additives that work well with diesel
cars
• Padding
One of the most effective ways of reducing diesel engine noise is to use
damping material in all perceivable areas
 There are brands like Dynamat that are quite expensive, but very effective in
absorbing sound
 A cheaper, but not so-effective fix is to use polyurethane yoga mats,
commonly available in hardware stores.
You will need to fix this with the help of adhesive to the underside of
the bonnet, along the sides of the engine bay and on and behind the
firewall between the passenger cabin and engine bay
 For additional effect, you can also paste this material inside the door
pads and on the floor of the vehicle
• This can bring down sound quite a bit inside the cabin and make the
vehicle quieter
Engine cover / shield
If your vehicle does not already have an engine cover or shield above the
engine, you can get one fabricated with light-weight aluminium and pad the
underside with sound damping material, with a reflective sheet covering it (to
reduce heat build up)
 If you already have an engine shield, then add a layer of padding to it
• Underbody coating
Underbody coating also plays a role in noise reduction to a minor extent
 Thick underbody coating of 100-150 microns not only prevents the vehicle
from rusting and damage from stones hitting the underside of the car, it also
reduces the road noise and some engine noise that can be heard inside the
cabin
• Music system
If you really can’t afford any sound reduction techniques that are
listed above, just get yourself a good music system
 A music system can take the stress out of driving and your mind off
the constant diesel clatter to a large extent
• Octane number is the ability of resistance of a fuel to knocking in
comparison to Iso-octane, which has octane number 100 and has high anti-
knock quality.
• Better anti-knock quality allows us to compress the air-fuel mixture to a
larger extent before it gets ignited by itself.
• Every fuel is rated between 0 to 100. (0 is for n-heptane)
• Higher octane number fuels lets you use higher compression ratio in the
engine, which can provide better performance.
• This was all for spark-ignition engine, in which mixture of fuel and air is
compressed.
• If you use a lower octane no. fuel in your engine, then there are chances of
engine knocking in your engine, which in severe cases, damage your
engine.
• But, when it comes to compression ignition engine,
• only air is compressed and fuel is injected into the cylinder. So you can go
on compressing as much as you want. But, when you inject the fuel, it must
burn satisfactorily efficiently in the available time.
• This means that this time we need a fuel which burns with minimum delay
when injected into the cylinder.
• Now what is this delay?
• When the fuel enters the cylinder, it needs to be atomized, then mixed with
air then it’s temperature must be raised, then the chemical reaction of
combustion takes it’s time. All these times added, is the ignition delay.
• The cetane number ranks the fuels; the higher the cetane number
the faster the auto-ignition. – Isooctane has a cetane of 15 – diesel
has a cetane number about 37 – 56. – Cetane (C16H34) has a cetane
number 100. ... – n-Heptane (C7H16) has a octane number 0, – iso-
octane (C8H18) has a octane number 100.
 GOVERNING OF IC ENGINES
• The process of providing any arrangement, which will keep the engine speed constant
(according to the changing load conditions) is known as governing of I.C. engines. Though
there are many methods for the governing of I.C. engines, yet the following are important:
1. Hit and miss governing. In this system of governing, whenever the engine starts
running at higher speed (due to decreased load), some explosions are omitted or missed.
This is done with the help of a centrifugal governor. This method of governing is widely
used for I. C. engines of smaller capacity or gas engines.
2. Qualitative governing. In this system of governing, a control valve is fitted in the fuel
delivery pipe, which controls the quantity of fuel to be mixed in the charge. The movement
of control valve is regulated by the centrifugal governor through rack and pinion
arrangement. For Diesel engine
3. Quantitative governing. In this system of governing, the quality of charge (i.e. air-fuel
ratio of the mixture) is kept constant. But the quantity of mixture supplied to the engine
cylinder is varied by means of a throttle valve which is regulated by the centrifugal
governor through rack and pinion arrangement. Petrol engine
• 4. Combination system of governing. In this system of governing, the qualitative and
quantitative methods of governing are combined together.
 Diesel power plant
• Diesel power plant produces 2 to 50 MW, are used as central
stations for supply of authorities and work
• They are used as standby sets for continuity of supply such as
hospital, telephone exchanges, radio stations, cinema theatres
and industries
• They are suitable for mobile power generation and widely used
in railway and ships
• Used as peak load plants, mobile plants, standby units,
emergency plants, starting stations, central stations, industries
where power requirement is small 500 kW
 Diesel power plant
Advantages of diesel power plants
• It can respond to varying load without any difficulty
• It occupies less space
• For the same capacity diesel power plant is compact and smaller than thermal
power plants
• Diesel power plants are more efficient than steam power plant in the range of
150 MW capacity
Disadvantages of diesel power plants
• High operating cost
• High maintenance and lubrication cost
• The capacity of diesel plant is limited. They can not be constructed in large size
• In diesel power plant noise is serious problem
• Diesel power plant can not supply overload continuously whereas steam power
plant can work under 25% overload continuously
General layout of a diesel power plant
1. Diesel engine
• It is compression ignition engine(CI) . It is the main component which
produces the power output
2. Air intake system
• The air required for combustion engine cyclinder is drawn through
thee air filter. The main purpose of the filter is to remove dust from
incoming air. The dry filter may be made of felt, wood, clothe
• In wet filter, oil bath is used. In this air is passes over the oil bath
where dust particles get coated with oil
3. Exhaust system
• The purpose of exhaust system is to discharge engine exhaust to
atmosphere
4. Fuel supply system
• The fuel from the storage tank is pumped through the filter to a small tank
called day tank. This tank supply the daily requirement of diesel engine.
• The day tank is placed high so that fuel flow under the gravity with
sufficient pressure
5. Starting system
• Diesel engine used in diesel power plant is not self starting. The engine is
started from cold condition with the help of air compressor
6. Lubricating system
• This system includes lubricating oil tank, oil pump and oil cooler
• The purpose of lubricating system is to reduce wear of moving parts. Parts
of the cylinder such as piston, shaft, valve must be lubricated
• Lubrication also helps to cool the engine
• In lubrication system oil is pumped from the lubricating tank through oil
cooler where oil is cooled by the cold water entering to the engine
• The hot oil after cooling the moving parts returns to the lubricating tank
7. Cooling system
• The temperature of the burning fuel inside the engine cylinder is of the
order of 27500C . In order to lower this temperature water is circulated
around the engine
• The water envelopes (water jackets) the engine. The heat from the
cylinder, piston, combustion chamber etc. are carried out by the
circulating water
• The hot water leaving the jacket is passed through the heat exchanger
• The heat from the heat exchanger is carried put by the raw water
circulated through the heat exchanger and is cooled in the cooling
system
 Operation of diesel power plant
• When diesel alternator set is put in parallel “ Hunting” or “phase
swinging” may be produced due to resonance unless care is taken by
manufacturer
• This condition occurs due to resonance due to periodic disturbing
forces of the engine and natural frequency of the system
• The engine forces result from uneven turning of engine crank which is
corrected by the flywheel
• Hunting results from the tendency of each set trying to pull other into
synchronism
• To ensure most economical operation of diesel engines of different
sizes working in parallel and sharing load it is necessary that they
should carry the same percentage of their full load capacity at all the
time as the fuel consumption would be lowest in this condition
 External Heat Transfer Cycle (Brayton cycle)
• Brayton cycle is also called Joule cycle or constant pressure
cycle. Brayton cycle was originally developed for piston-
cylinder engine where fuel is injected. But now a days it is
commonly used for open and closed cycle turbine engines. The
open cycle engine may be either internal combustion or external
combustion whereas the closed cycle engine is external
combustion engine. Internal combustion means combustion
takes place inside the engine. The external combustion means
the combustion takes place outside the engine.
• The air standard Brayton cycle is an idealized cycle for gas
power plant. It consists of a compressor, a combustion chamber
and a turbine, as shown in the figure.
 Heat
Combustion chamber exchanger
Compressor
Compressor Turbine
Turbine
𝑊𝑐
𝑊𝑐
𝑊𝑡
𝑊𝑡 Shaft
Shaft

Exhaust Pre-cooler
Air

Figure 6.1: Open Brayton Cycle. Figure 6.2: Closed Brayton Cycle
• In this atmospheric air is compressed in the compressor from lower
pressure P1 to higher pressure P2 and then passed to the combustion
chamber, where fuel is injected and burned. The process of combustion
takes place at constant pressure but temperature rises from T2 to T3. The
product of the combustion is expanded in the turbine from pressure P3 to
P1=P4 (atmospheric pressure).
• Both the compressor and turbine are coupled by a shaft. During expansion
WT is the work done by the turbine and WC is the work given by turbine to
compressor. So, the net work done is the difference between WT and WC.
Generally the gas turbine cycles are open cycles where fresh air is
introduced in compressor, as shown in figure 6.1. But in the ideal Brayton
cycle, the cycle is assumed as closed cycle. In closed cycle heat is added by
heat exchanger (no need of mixing air and fuel) and heat is rejected by
another heat exchanger called pre-cooler, as shown in figure 6.2.
P 3
𝑞𝐴 T 𝑞𝐴
2 3
𝑃𝑣 𝛾 = 𝐶 4′
2′ 4
2

𝑞𝑅
1 4
𝑞𝑅
v s
Figure 6.3: Brayton cycle on P-v and T-s
diagrams
• Process 1-2: This is isentropic compression process. Here the
air is compressed by compressor. The pressure and
temperature get rise from P1, T1 to P2 T2.
• Process 2-3: It is the heat addition at constant pressure. The
temperature rises from T2 to T3.
• Process 3-4: It is the isentropic expansion process. The
pressure and temperature of air gets decreased from P3, T3 to
P4, T4 respectively.
• Process 4-1: It is heat rejection at constant pressure. The
temperature decreases from T4 to T1.
• Thermal efficiency of the cycle
• For unit mass of the working fluid, applying first law of thermodynamics
considering steady flow and neglecting potential and kinetic energy, we have
• 𝛿𝑞 − 𝛿𝑤 = 𝑑ℎ
• Now,
• Heat added, 𝑞𝐴 = ℎ3 − ℎ2
• Heat rejection, 𝑞𝑅 = ℎ4 − ℎ1
• Net work done, 𝑤𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑞𝐴 − 𝑞𝑅 = 𝑐𝑝 [ 𝑇3 − 𝑇2 − 𝑇4 − 𝑇1 ]
• The network can also find from turbine work and compressor work as
• Turbine work, 𝑤𝑇 = ℎ3 − ℎ4 = 𝑐𝑝 (𝑇3 − 𝑇4 )
• Compressor work, 𝑤𝐶 = ℎ2 − ℎ1 = 𝑐𝑝 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
• The network, 𝑤𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑤𝑇 − 𝑤𝐶 = 𝑐𝑝 𝑇3 − 𝑇4 − 𝑐𝑝 𝑇2 − 𝑇1 = 𝑐𝑝 [ 𝑇3 − 𝑇4 −
• For isentropic process 3-4
𝛾−1 𝛾−1 𝛾−1
𝑇3 𝑃 𝑃
• = ( 3) 𝛾 = ( 2) 𝛾 = (𝑟𝑝 )𝛾 ∵ 𝑃2 = 𝑃3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃1 = 𝑃4
𝑇4 𝑃4 𝑃1
𝑇3
• ⇒ 𝑇4 = 𝛾−1
(𝑟𝑝 ) 𝛾

• Substituting the value of T1 and T4 in the ηth expression, we have

𝑇3 𝑇2
𝛾−1 − 𝛾−1
𝑟𝑝 𝛾 𝑟𝑝 𝛾 1 𝑇3 −𝑇2
• 𝜂𝑡ℎ = 1 − =1− 𝛾−1 ×
𝑇3 −𝑇2 𝑇3 −𝑇2
(𝑟𝑝 ) 𝛾
𝟏
• ∴ 𝜼𝒕𝒉 = 𝟏 − 𝜸−𝟏
(𝒓𝒑 ) 𝜸
• Thermal efficiency of Brayton cycle is the same as Otto cycle. The only
difference is the compression ratio of Otto cycle Rc is replaced by pressure ratio
rp in Brayton cycle. The efficiency can be increased by increasing pressure ratio.
 When consider the efficiency of turbine and compressor
• Let ηc and ηt be efficiencies of compressor and turbine respectively.
• Then the work supplied to the compressor will be more than the
isentropic process as shown by the process 1-2’. Similarly as the actual
efficiency of turbine is less than the isentropic process, turbine work
will be less than that of isentropic work as shown by process 3-4’.
𝑇2 −𝑇1 𝑇3 −𝑇′4
• Then, 𝜂𝑐 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜂𝑡 =
𝑇′2 −𝑇1 𝑇3 −𝑇4
• Heat supplied, 𝑞𝐴 = 𝑐𝑝 (𝑇3 − 𝑇 ′ 2 )
• Heat rejected, 𝑞𝑅 = 𝑐𝑝 (𝑇′4 − 𝑇1 )
𝒄𝒑 (𝑻′𝟒 −𝑻𝟏 )
• The efficiency of cycle in this case, 𝜼 = 𝟏 −
𝒄𝒑 (𝑻𝟑 −𝑻′ 𝟐 )
 Performance improvement of gas turbine
• A simple Cycle Gas turbine follows the Brayton cycle
• In many aircrafts gas turbine engines are used in their
simple forms as the aircraft is needed to be light
• While gas turbines which are used in land or marine
application can be equipped with additional parts to increase
the efficiency
• Modifications that are usually seen in Gas Turbine cycle
plants are regeneration, reheating and intercooling.
• Lets have a look at the diagram of an open cycle and close
cycle gas turbine
• It is clearly visible that in open cycle GT the exhaust gas is
not been used in any other purpose
• It is discharged to atmosphere
• But in closed cycle gas turbine the exhaust gas is used in an
heat exchanger as a result the working fluid is reusable
• It is also a clean cycle as the working fluid is recirculated.
 Gas Turbine or Brayton Cycle With Reheat , Regeneration and
Intercooling
• Lets have a look at the T-s and P-V diagram of an ideal Brayton Cycle
or Gas Turbine cycle
•
• The simple gas turbine cycle consists of two isentropic and two
isobaric processes
• But there are some deviations in the actual cycle of gas turbine in
comparing to the ideal Brayton cycle
• The following diagram will focus on the deviations. The deviations
are mainly due to the irreversibilities
 Regeneration of Gas Turbine Plant
• Regeneration process involves the installation of a heat exchanger in the
gas turbine cycle.
• The heat-exchanger is also known as the recuperator
• This heat exchanger is used to extract the heat from the exhaust gas
• This exhaust gas is used to heat the compressed air
• This compressed and pre-heated air then enters the combustors
• When the heat exchanger is well designed , the effectiveness is high
and pressure drops are minimal
• And when these heat exchangers are used an improvement in the
efficiency is noticed
• Regenerated Gas turbines can improve the efficiency more than 5 % .
• Regenerated Gas Turbine work even more effectively in the improved
part load applications.
 Gas Turbine Power Plant with Intercooling
• In Intercooling a heat exchanger is used to cool the compressor gases at
the time of compression process.
• When the compressor involves the high and low pressure unit in it, the
intercooler could be installed between them to cool down the flow.
• This cooling process will decrease the work needed for the compression
in the high pressure unit.
• The cooling fluid can be water , air.
• In marine gas turbines the sea water is used to cool the fluid.
• It is observed that a successful implementation of the intercooler can
improve the gas turbine output.
 Reheating of Gas turbine Plants
• Reheating is applied in a gas turbine in such a way that it increases
the turbine work without increasing the compressor work or melting
the turbine materials. When a gas turbine plant has a high pressure
and low pressure turbine a re-heater can be applied successfully.
Reheating can improve the efficiency up to 3 % . A re-heater is
generally is a combustor which reheat the flow between the high and
low pressure turbines.
• In jet engines an afterburner is used to reheat. It is attached at the
exhaust of the turbine. As a result the thrust is increased. But it takes
a lot of fuel to increase the thrust.
 Starting of gas power plant
• Why a staring mean is required to start a gas power plant?
Like other internal combustion engine, a gas turbine cannot produce
torque at zero speed
Starting mean is used to start gas turbine rolling, crank it to firing
speed and assist to fired turbine to self-sustaining speed
This is accomplished by motor, generator and other starting device
operating through torque converter couple to the accessary gears
This arrangement gives the starting torque to gas turbine start up and
during shut down this continue to rotate the turbine rotor at slow
speed for cool down purposes
Fuel storage system
 Cooling system
• In the United States, 90 percent of electricity comes from
thermoelectric power plants—coal, nuclear, natural gas, and oil—that
require cooling
• The remaining ten percent is produced by hydroelectric and other
renewable energy facilities
• Some renewable energy technologies are thermoelectric as well,
including certain types of concentrating solar, geothermal, and
biomass power plants.
 Why is cooling necessary?
• Thermoelectric power plants boil water to create steam, which then
spins turbines to generate electricity
• The heat used to boil water can come from burning of a fuel, from
nuclear reactions, or directly from the sun or geothermal heat
sources underground
• Once steam has passed through a turbine, it must be cooled back
into water before it can be reused to produce more electricity
• Colder water cools the steam more effectively and allows more
efficient electricity generation
 Types of cooling
• Even though all thermoelectric plants use water to generate steam for
electricity generation, not all plant cooling systems use water. There are
three main methods of cooling:
• Once-through systems take water from nearby sources (e.g., rivers,
lakes, aquifers, or the ocean), circulate it through pipes to absorb heat
from the steam in systems called condensers, and discharge the now
warmer water to the local source. Once-through systems were initially
the most popular because of their simplicity, low cost, and the
possibility of siting power plants in places with abundant supplies of
cooling water. This type of system is currently widespread in the eastern
US Very few new power plants use once-through cooling, however,
because of the disruptions such systems cause to local ecosystems from
the significant water withdrawals involved and because of the increased
difficulty in siting power plants near available water sources.
• Wet-recirculating or closed-loop systems reuse cooling water in
a second cycle rather than immediately discharging it back to the
original water source. Most commonly, wet-recirculating systems
use cooling towers to expose water to ambient air. Some of the
water evaporates; the rest is then sent back to the condenser in
the power plant. Because wet-recirculating systems only
withdraw water to replace any water that is lost through
evaporation in the cooling tower, these systems have much lower
water withdrawals than once-through systems, but tend to have
appreciably higher water consumption. In the western US, wet-
recirculating systems are predominant.
• Dry-cooling systems use air instead of water to cool the
steam exiting a turbine. Dry-cooled systems use no water
and can decrease total power plant water consumption by
more than 90 percent. The tradeoffs to these water savings
are higher costs and lower efficiencies. In power plants,
lower efficiencies mean more fuel is needed per unit of
electricity, which can in turn lead to higher air pollution and
environmental impacts from mining, processing, and
transporting the fuel. In 2000, most US dry-cooling
installations were in smaller power plants, most commonly
in natural gas combined-cycle power plants.
• About 43 percent of thermoelectric generators in the
United States use once-through cooling, 56 percent
recirculating, and 1 percent dry-cooling (2008 data). In
2008, some 30 percent of electricity generation
involved once-through cooling, 45 percent
recirculating cooling, and 2 percent dry-cooling. (In
some cases, those same power plants also produced
electricity using non-steam systems, such as
combustion turbines.
 Noise abatement
• Gas turbines are widely used to produce power for a
number of industrial applications
• They emit extreme levels of noise due to the high
horsepower output and high speed rotating blades
• The major sources of noise are intake, exhaust and
casing.
• Intake noise is created by the interaction of the axial
air compressor blades and stator, and is a function of
pressure increase, number of blades and tip speed
• The overall level of the intake noise is less than that
produced by the exhaust, but its high frequency
content sounds much louder than the higher
amplitude, lower frequency exhaust noise
• Exhaust noise has increased amplitude and is shifted
to lower frequencies due to the combustion process.
• Casing noise is generated by the high speed
misaligned mechanical components within the turbine
housing radiating to the outer casing.
• Turbines typically have inlet and exhaust sound power levels ranging
from 120 dB to over 155 dB.
• The inlet and exhaust noises are principally aerodynamic sources
• High aerodynamic turbulence and combustion noises are present in
the exhaust that is principally broadband in nature.
• Parallel baffle silencers are traditionally used in the exhaust to
address such noise.
• The performance reported for such silencers is often misleading as
the gas in the exhaust is at an elevated temperature and the noise
absorption performance of mineral wool is compromised in such
conditions.
 TURBINE GOVERNING SYSTEMS
The four main functions of the governing system1 are as follows:
• To limit the speed rise to an acceptable limit upon a load rejection
(when the unit is suddenly disconnected from the load)
• To control the power that is generated by controlling the position of
the steam governing valve (or fuel valve in gas turbines)
• To control the speed of the turbogenerator during initial run-up and
synchronization
• To match the power that is generated to the power that is required by
the load by responding to frequency changes [only when the
generator is operating in islanding mode (i.e., alone), independently
from the grid]