WELD DEFECTS

DEFECT & DISCONTINUITY

• All defects are discontinuities.

• All discontinuities are not defects.

• Another name for DEFECT is FLAW

 FACTS !
• A defect is a discontinuity which is
not acceptable to the standard.
• A discontinuity may be acceptable to
the standard.
 FACTS !
• Most weld defects are due to
improper welding techniques.
• Once the causes are determined,
welder or operator can easily correct
the problem.
 TYPE OF INDICATIONS
• ROUNDED INDICATIONS
 Spherical in profile.
• LINEAR INDICATIONS
 Having length more than diameter and
may have tails.
 Weld Joint Discontinuities
• Misalignment (hi-lo) • Inclusions • Base Metal
• Undercut – Slag Discontinuities
– Wagontracks – Lamellar tearing
• Underfill
– Tungsten – Laminations and
• Concavity or Convexity Delaminations
• Excessive • Spatter
– Laps and Seams
reinforcement • Arc Craters
• Porosity
• Improper • Cracks
– Uniformly Scattered
reinforcement – Longitudinal
– Cluster
• Overlap – Transverse
– Linear
• Burn-through – Crater
– Piping
– Throat
• Incomplete or • Heat-affected zone
Insufficient Penetration – Toe
microstructure
– Root
• Incomplete Fusion alteration
– Underbead and
• Surface irregularity Heat-affected zone • Base Plate
– Overlap laminations
– Hot
• Arc Strikes – Cold or delayed • Size or dimensions
 TYPES OF POROSITY
(WORMHOLE)
• SPHERICAL
• ELONGATED
 TYPES OF APPEARANCE
• ISOLATED = Randomly spaced and only a few
• CLUSTER = Found as a cluster or group
• ALIGNED = Spaced in a straight line along the
weld
 Appearance of porosity in
radiograph

Isolated porosity Cluster porosity Aligned porosity

TYPES OF POROSITY
 CAUSES OF POROSITY
– excessively long or short arc length
– welding current too high
– insufficient or moist shielding gas
– travel speed too fast
– base metal covered with oil, grease, moisture etc.
– wet, unclean or damaged electrodes.
– Improperly baked LH electrodes
 LACK OF FUSION (L.O.F)
Definition: Where weld metal does not
form a cohesive bond with the base metal.

• No fusion between weld metal and surface

of base plate.
• No fusion between intermediate passes.
Appearance of LOF in radiograph
L.O.F SIDE WALL
L.O.F INTER-RUN
L.O.F IN FILLET WELD
 CAUSES OF L.O.F
• Narrow joint preparation
• Excessively long arc length
• Too low welding current
• Too high a travel speed
• Poor welding technique (angle, manipulation)
• Magnetic arc blow ( ferromagnetic steel)
 UNDERCUTTING
Definition: A groove cut at the toe
of the weld and left unfilled.

BUTT WELD FILLET WELD

 CAUSES OF UNDERCUTTING
• Welding current too high
• Welding voltage too high (Too long arc length)
• Travel speed too fast
Undercut is dangerous because it amplifies the
stress flow due to reduction in section area and
stress concentration of the notch form. It can be
at the root or cap of the weld.
 UNDERCUTTING

Weld cap undercut Weld root undercut

 UNDERFILL
Definition: The weld surface is below the
adjacent surfaces of the base metal
 CAUSES OF UNDERFILL
• Improper welding technique.
(L.O.P) LACK OF
PENETRATION
 CAUSES OF L.O.P
• Poor welding technique
• Insufficient root gap
• Electrode diameter too large
 INCLUSIONS
• METALLIC - (Copper, Tungsten)
• NON-METALLIC- (Slag, Oxide)
 SLAG INCLUSION

Definition: Slag entrapped within the weld

 CAUSES OF SLAG
INCLUSION
• Poor inter-pass cleaning of welds
• Poor electrode manipulation technique
• Faulty electrodes
Slag inclusions are nonmetallic solid material entrapped
in weld metal or between weld metal and base metal.
This solidified slag represents a portion of the weld’s
cross-section where the metal is not fused to itself. This
can result in a weakened condition which could impair
the serviceability of the component. Inclusions may also
appear at the weld surface. Slag inclusions can occur
between the weld and base metal or between individual
weld passes. In fact, slag inclusions are often associated
with incomplete fusion.
 TUNGSTEN INCLUSION
• Small pieces of GTAW or PAW tungsten
electrode embedded inside the weld
 CAUSES OF TUNGSTEN
INCLUSION
• Electrode stick out length too much.
• Poor electrode manipulation technique.
• Welding current too high.
 CAUSES OF OXIDE
INCLUSION
• Cause: Lack of proper gas shielding

Oxide inclusions are usually visible on the surface of material being

welded (especially aluminum). Oxide inclusions are less dense than
the surrounding material and, therefore, appear as dark irregularly
shaped discontinuities in the radiograph
 CRACKS
• Cracks can occur in a wide variety
and shapes and types and can be
located in various positions and
shapes in and around the weld.
 There are mainly four types
that occur in weld metal.
• Transverse crack
• Longitudinal crack
• Crater crack
• Hat crack
 There are seven types that
occur in the base metal
• Transverse crack
• Under bead crack
• Toe crack
• Root crack
• Lamellar tearing
• Delamination
• Fusion line crack
TYPES OF CRACK
TRANSVERSE CRACK
LONGITUDINAL CRACK
LONGITUDINAL CRACK
RADIOGRAPHIC APPEARANCE OF
LONGITUDINAL CRACK
RADIOGRAPHIC APPEARANCE OF
LONGITUDINAL & TRANSVERSE
CRACK
TOE CRACK
ROOT CRACK
LAMELLAR TEARING
EXCESS PENETRATION
 CAUSES OF EXCESS
PENETRATION
• Improper manipulation of electrode
• Too high current
• Fit-up gap too wide
CAUSES OF WELD OVERLAP

Definition: When the face of the weld

extends beyond the toe of the weld
• Improper welding technique ,(electrode angle
or travel speed)
WELD OVERLAP
 OVERLAP
Overlap is measured with
a square edge such as a
6” rule. No amount of
overlap is typically
allowed.
 BURN THROUGH
Definition: When an undesirable open hole has been
completely melted through the base metal. The hole
may or may not be left open.
 CAUSES OF BURN THROUGH
• Too high welding current(Excessive heat input)
• Improper electrode manipulation
 Excessive Concavity or Convexity

• Definition: Concavity or convexity of a fillet weld which

exceeds the specified allowable limits
• Cause: Amperage and travel speed

• Prevention: Observe proper parameters and

techniques.
• Repair: Grind off or weld on. Must blend smoothly into
the base metal.
FILLET WELD
CONVEXITY
FILLET WELD
CONCAVITY
 BUTT WELD
ROOT CONCAVITY
 ARC STRIKE (STRAY ARC)
• Definition: A localized coalescence outside the weld
zone. Forms martensite in high strength steel.
• Cause: Carelessness
• Prevention: In difficult areas, adjacent areas can be
protected using fire blankets.

• Repair: Where applicable, arc strikes must be

ground smooth and checked with NDT for cracks. If
found, they must be removed and re-inspected with
NDT.
ARC STRIKE (STRAY ARC)
• Heat-affected metal, or change in the surface profile
of any part of a weld or base metal resulting from an
arc. Arc strikes result when the arc is initiated on the
base metal surface away from the weld joint, either
intentionally or accidentally. When this occurs, there
is a localized area of the base metal surface which is
melted and then rapidly cooled due to the massive
heat sink created by the surrounding base metal. Arc
strikes are not desirable and often not acceptable, as
they could lead to cracking during the cooling process
or under fatigue conditions.
 SPATTER
• Spatter consists of metal particles expelled out
during fusion welding, that do not form a part
of the weld.
• Spatter is not considered as a serious flaw
unless its presence interferes with subsequent
operations like, painting, NDT etc.
 FIT-UP DEFECTS
• Misalignment
• Insufficient root gap
• Insufficient root face
• Improper edge preparation
 Misalignment (hi-lo)

• Definition: Amount a joint is out

of alignment at the root

• Cause: Carelessness. Also due to joining different

thicknesses (transition thickness)
• Prevention: Workmanship. Transition angles not to
exceed 2.5 to 1.
• Repair: Grinding. Careful on surface finish and
direction of grind marks. Inside of Pipe /Tube difficult.
INSUFFICIENT ROOT GAP
INSUFFICIENT ROOT FACE
IMPROPER EDGE
PREPARATION
BAD WELD OR GOOD WELD?
 CASTING DEFECTS
• MICRO POROSITY • COLD SHUT
• PIN HOLE POROSITY • UNFUSED CHAPLET
• GAS HOLES • INCLUSION
• WORM HOLES • SEGREGATION
• AIR LOCK
• SHRINKAGE CAVITY
• FILAMENTARY
SHRINKAGE
• HOT TEAR
• STRESS CRACK
 In the case of castings, there
are two very different systems
for interpretation:

•The American (ASTM) system

•Australian standard AS3507

 The American (ASTM) system
This system relies on ‘reference radiographs’. These are sets of
radiographs showing particular casting discontinuities at up to five levels
of severity. A typical standard is ASTM E446 “Standard Reference
Radiographs for Steel Castings up to two inches (51 mm) in Thickness”.
This standard contains a number of reference radiographs showing
particular casting discontinuities at different levels of severity. These
discontinuities are categorised as gas porosity, shrinkage etc.
The radiographs are each 5"× 7" (127 mm × 178 mm) and are used to
compare with 5"× 7" areas of radiographs of actual castings. Acceptance
is based on perceived severity of the particular discontinuity. The
standards states “where a particular severity is called for, and the
radiograph being evaluated is equal to or better than the reference
radiograph, the casting shall be indicated as being radiographically
acceptable. If the radiograph shows a discontinuity of greater severity
than the reference radiograph, the casting shall be rejected” .
 The Australian standard
The Australian standard for radiography of steel castings is AS3507, “Non-
destructive testing – Radiography of steel castings and classification of
quality”. This standard adopts a totally different approach in that
discontinuities must be quantified (measured) and the acceptance or
otherwise of the casting is based on these measurements.
For gas porosity, inclusions and shrinkage discontinuities, the standard
defines a viewing area that varies from 30 mm × 30 mm to 100 mm × 100
mm, depending on casting thickness.
For gas defects (porosity) and inclusions, the standard assigns a ‘severity
index’ depending on the diameter or size of the discontinuity. The total
of the severity indexes in the viewing area must not exceed a particular
limit, determined by the class of the casting.
For shrinkage discontinuities, the maximum length
and/or width of the discontinuity is measured. The total
length or area of shrinkage within the viewing area must
not exceed limits set for the particular class of casting. If
two or more areas are detected in the viewing area, the
lengths or areas are summed.

Example: Two areas of macro-shrinkage are detected in

the viewing area of a casting, one measuring 100 mm long
and one measuring 20 mm long. Total length is 120 mm. If
the maximum length allowed is 120 mm or greater, the
casting is radiographically acceptable, otherwise the
casting is not acceptable.
 MICRO POROSITY
This is a very fine, but often extensive, discontinuity caused
by evolution of gas whereby very fine gas pores form around
grain boundaries or between dendrite arms. They present a
somewhat mottled effect in a radiograph. Mainly effects
non-ferrous metals such as magnesium and aluminium.
 PIN HOLE POROSITY
Small rounded cavities, typically less than 1 mm diameter, caused
by evolution of gas during solidification of the molten metal.
Sometimes occurs just below the surface of the casting, where it is
known as sub-cutaneous pinhole porosity. Appears in a radiograph
as widely distributed small dark rounded images.
 GAS HOLES
Rounded cavities generally greater than 1 mm diameter - they can
be quite large - and often more randomly dispersed through the
casting due to gas evolved from the metal during solidification or
from the mould or core. Appears as dark areas with a smooth
outline which may be circular or elongated in shape.
 WORM HOLES
• Tube-like cavities similar to gas holes, generally located just
below the surface of a casting. Caused by progressive expansion
of entrapped superheated steam from moisture in a mould or
core.
 AIR LOCK
• A large cavity formed by air entrapped in the mould
during pouring of the metal. Appears as a generally
smooth and often irregularly shaped image.
 SHRINKAGE CAVITY
• A discrete cavity caused by contraction of the
metal during solidification. Generally rougher
edges to the image and an irregular - often
tapered - shape.
 FILAMENTARY SHRINKAGE
• A fine to course form of shrinkage in which the cavities are
branching, interconnected and extensive. Appears as a
network of branched irregular shapes.
 HOT TEAR
• A discontinuity caused by fracture of the metal during its
contraction as it cools during the early stages after
solidification. Appears as one or more dark, jagged, lines.
Hot tears tend to be a planar type of discontinuity, so
detection by radiography may depend on the plane of the
crack relative to the direction of the radiation beam.
 STRESS CRACK
• A sharper, more well defined fracture of the metal that forms
generally during the later stages of cooling from solidification.
May appear as a slightly jagged or a smooth dark line. They can
also form when the casting is cold or during subsequent heat
treatment. Again, hot tears tend to be planar so detection will
depend upon the viewpoint of the radiograph.
 COLD SHUT
• A discontinuity formed when a stream of liquid metal, as it flows through a
mould, fails to fuse with other metal in the mould. Mostly a surface
discontinuity, radiographically it appears as a smooth dark line. Being a
basically planar type of discontinuity, its detection by radiography may depend
on the plane of the discontinuity relative to the direction of the radiation
beam. It is often detected visually.
 UNFUSED CHAPLET /CHILLS
• Chaplets and chills are metal inserts placed in a mould for various
casting purposes. If the liquid metal fails to fuse to these devices,
a planar discontinuity may result. The presence of rust on the
chaplet or chill will generally give rise to porosity around the
chaplet or chill.
 INCLUSIONS
• Sand from a mould, and slag or dross from a ladle of metal, can
be washed into the stream of metal as it enters and flows through
a mould, and become trapped in the metal as it solidifies. It may
appear as a light or dark irregularly shaped image in a radiograph,
and may be difficult to distinguish from a void. However, the
outcome is the same - this discontinuity is generally not
acceptable.