EE-311

LECTURE 3

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 DIODE MODELS AND CIRCUITS

• The diode:
• The diode is a two-terminal device, with the triangular head denoting the allowable
direction of current flow and the vertical bar representing the blocking behavior for
currents in the opposite direction. The corresponding terminals are called the “anode”
and the “cathode,” respectively.

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 EXAMPLE
• Plot the I/V characteristic for the diode-resistor combination.

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EXAMPLE

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EXAMPLE

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 EXAMPLE
Find the values of I and V.

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I-V Relationship

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Graphical Analysis
Assuming that VDD is greater than 0.5V, the diode
current will be much greater than IS.

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The Piecewise (parçalı)-Linear Model

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The Piecewise-Linear Model

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The Piecewise-Linear Model

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 Example
• Determine the current ID and the diode voltage VD for the circuit given in the figure below for VDD=5V
and R=1k.

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The Constant-Voltage-Drop Model

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 Large-Signal and Small-Signal Operation

• Our treatment of diodes thus far has allowed arbitrarily large voltage and current
changes, thereby requiring a “general” model such as the exponential I/V
characteristic.We call this regime “large signal operation” and the exponential
characteristic the “large-signal model” to emphasize that the model can
accommodate arbitrary signal levels.
• However, as seen in previous examples, this model often complicates the analysis,
making it difficult to develop an intuitive understanding of the circuit’s operation.
Furthermore, as the number of nonlinear devices in the circuit increases, “manual”
analysis eventually becomes impractical.
• The following example illustrates the general difficulty.

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 Example
• Having lost his 2.4-V cellphone charger, an electrical engineering student tries
several stores but does not find adaptors with outputs less than 3 V. He then decides
to put his knowledge of electronics to work and constructs the circuit shown in Fig.,
where three identical diodes in forward bias produce a total voltage of Vout = 3VD=
2.4 V and resistor R1 sustains the remaining 600 mV. Neglect the current drawn by
the cellphone. Determine the reverse saturation current, IS1 so that Vout = 2.4 V.

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Solution

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 Small-Signal Operation
• To develop our understanding of small-signal operation, let us consider diode D1 in
Fig. (a), which sustains a voltage VD1 and carries a current ID1 [point A in Fig. (b)].
Now suppose a perturbation in the circuit changes the diode voltage by a small
amount VD [point B in Fig. (c)]. How do we predict the change in the diode current,
ID?

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Small-Signal Operation

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Small-Signal Operation

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Example

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 Small-Signal Operation
• In analogy with Ohm’s Law, we define the “small-signal resistance” of the diode as:

• This quantity is also called the incremental” resistance to emphasize its validity for
small changes

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 Application of Diodes
• Half Wave Rectifiers
• Vout remains equal to zero until Vin exceeds VDon, at which point D1 turns on and
Vout = Vin - VDon. For Vin < VDon, D1 is off and Vout = 0. Thus, the circuit still operates
as a rectifier but produces a slightly lower dc level.

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 Half Wave Rectifier
• Called a “half-wave rectifier,” the circuit does not produce a useful output. Unlike a
battery, the rectifier generates an output that varies considerably with time and
cannot supply power to electronic devices.We must therefore attempt to create a
constant output.
• Fortunately, a simple modification solves the problem. As depicted in Fig. the resistor
is replaced with a capacitor.
• The operation of this circuit is quite different from that of the above rectifier.

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 Half Wave Rectifier
• Assuming a constant-voltage model for D1 in forward bias, we begin with a zero initial
condition across C1 and study the behavior of the circuit.
• As Vin rises from zero, D1 is off until Vin > VDon, at which point D1 begins to act as a
battery and Vout = Vin-VDon.
• Thus, Vout reaches a peak value of Vp - VDon.
• What happens as Vin passes its peak value?

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 Half Wave Rectifier
• At t = t1, we have Vin = Vp and Vout = Vp - VDon. As Vin begins to fall, Vout
must remain constant.
• This is because if Vout were to fall, then C1 would need to be discharged by
a current flowing from its top plate through the cathode of D1, which is
impossible.
• The diode therefore turns off after t1.
• At t = t2, Vin = Vp - VDon = Vout, i.e., the diode sustains a zero voltage
difference.
• At t > t2, Vin < Vout and the diode experiences a negative voltage.
• Continuing our analysis, we note that at t = t3, Vin = -Vp, applying a
maximum reverse bias of Vout-Vin = 2Vp-VDon across the diode. For this
reason, diodes used in rectifiers must withstand a reverse voltage of
approximately 2Vp with no breakdown.

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 Half Wave Rectifier
• We must repeat our analysis with load resistance RL present.
• We recognize that Vout behaves as before until t = t1, still exhibiting a value of Vin -
VDon = Vp - VDon if the diode voltage is assumed relatively constant.
• However, as Vin begins to fall after t = t1, so does Vout because RL provides a
discharge path for C1.

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 Half Wave Rectifier
• Of course, since changes in Vout are undesirable, C1 must be so large that the current
drawn by RL does not reduce Vout significantly. With such a choice of C1, Vout falls
slowly and D1 remains reverse biased.
• The output voltage continues to decrease while Vin goes through a negative
excursion and returns to positive values.
• At some point, t = t2, Vin and Vout become equal and slightly later, at t = t3, Vin exceeds
Vout by VDon, thereby turning D1 on and forcing Vout = Vin - VDon.

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Example

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 Ripple Amplitude
• In typical applications, the (peak-to-peak) amplitude of the ripple, VR, must remain
below 5 to 10% of the input peak voltage.
• If the maximum current drawn by the load is known, the value of C1 is chosen large
enough to yield an acceptable ripple.

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 Ripple Amplitude
• Since Vout = Vp - VDon at t = t1, the discharge of C1 through RL can be expressed as:

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Ripple Amplitude

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 Full Wave Rectifier
• The half-wave rectifier studied above blocks the negative half cycles of the input,
allowing the filter capacitor to be discharged by the load for almost the entire period.
• The circuit therefore suffers from a large ripple in the presence of a heavy load (a
high current).
• It is possible to reduce the ripple voltage by a factor of two through a simple
modification.
• Illustrated in the figure below the idea is to pass both positive and negative half cycles
to the output, but with the negative half cycles inverted (i.e., multiplied by -1).
• We first implement a circuit that performs this function [called a “full-wave rectifier”
(FWR)] and next prove that it indeed exhibits a smaller ripple.

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Full Wave Rectifier

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Full Wave Rectifier

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Full Wave Rectifier

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Full Wave Rectifier

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 Exercise
• Plot the currents carried by each diode in a bridge
rectifier as a function of time for a sinusoidal input.
Assume no smoothing capacitor is connected to
the output.

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Solution

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