Process Dynamics &

Control
Bsc, Chemical Engineering
8th Semester
Dr. Khalid Mahmood
E-mail: km_engr@hotmail.com

Office Hours: Anytime on working days from 8 am to 1 pm

Attendance and Class participation= 10%

Quizzes (2 - 3) = 20%
Midterm Exam = 30%
Final Exam = 40%

Attendance in the Class – as per rule.

 (Process Dynamics & Control) : Spring 2018
Text and Reference Books:

• Text Books:
• Carlos A. Smith and Armando B. Corripio; “Principles and Practices
of Automatic Process Control”, 3rd Edition, 2005, John Wiley and
Sons Inc.
• George Stephanopoulos; “Chemical Process Control: An Introduction
to Theory and Practice”, P T R PRENTICE HALL, Englewood Cliffs,
New Jersey.

• Reference Books:
• Seborg Edgar and Mellichap Doyle; “Process Dynamics and Control”
3rd Edition, 2007, John Wiley and Sons Inc.
 Course Contents
1. Introduction (Automatic Control System)
1-1 A process control system
1-2 Important terms and objectives of automatic process control
1-3 Regulatory and servo control
1-4 Transmission signals, control systems and other terms
1-5 Control strategies
1-5.1 Feedback control
1-5.2 Feedforward control
1-6 Background needed for process control
 Course Contents
2. Mathematical Tools for Control System Analysis
2-1 The Laplace transform
2-1.1 Definition of Laplace transform
2-1.2 Properties of Laplace transform
2-2 Solution of differential equations using the Laplace transform
2-2.1 Laplace transform solution procedure
2-2.2 Inversion by partial fraction expansion
2-2.3 Handling time delays
2-3 Characteristics of process response
2-3.1 Deviation variables
2-3.2 Output response
2-3.3 Stability
 Course Contents
2-4 Response of first-order system
2-4.1 Step response
2-4.2 Ramp response
2-4.3 Sinusoidal response
2-4.3 Response with time delay
2-5 Response of second-order system
2-5.1 Overdamped responses
2-5.2 Underdamped responses
2-5.3 High-order responses
2-6 Linearization
2-6.1 Linearization of function of one variable
2-6.2 Linearization of functions of two or more variables
2-6.3 Linearization of differential equations
 Course Contents
3. First-order dynamic system
3-1 Processes and importance of process characteristics
3-2 Mathematical process modeling
3-3 Thermal process example
3-4 Dead time
3-5 Transfer functions and block diagrams
3-6 Gas process example
3-7 Chemical reactors
3-8 Effects of process non-linearities
 Course Contents
4. Higher-order dynamic system
4-1 Non-interacting systems
4-1.1 Non-interacting level process
4-1.2 Thermal tanks in series
4-2 Interacting systems
4-2.1 Interacting level process
4-2.2 Thermal tanks with recycle
4-3 Response of high order systems
4-4 Other types of process responses
4-4.1 Interacting process: Level process
4-4.2 Open-loop unstable process: Chemical reactor
4-4.3 Inverse response processes: Chemical reactor
 Course Contents
5. Basic Components of Control Systems
5-1 Sensors and transmitters
5-2 Control valves
5-2.1 The control valve actuator
5-2.2 Control valve capacity and sizing
5-2.3 Control valve characteristics
5-2.4 Control valve gain and transfer function
5-3 Thermal process example
5-3.1 Actions of controllers
5-3.2 Types of feedback controllers
5-3.3 Modification of PID controllers
 Course Contents
6. Design of Single-loop Process Control Systems
6-1 Feedback control loop
6-1.1 Closed-loop transfer function
6-1.2 Characteristics equation of the loop
6-1.3 Steady-state closed-loop response
6-2 Stability of control loop
6-2.1 Criterion of stability
6-2.2 Direct substitution method
6-2.3 Effect of dead time
 Course Contents
7. Tuning of Feedback Controllers
7-1 Quarter decay ratio response by ultimate gain
7-2 Open-loop process characterization
7-3 Tuning controllers for integrating processes
7-3.1 Model of liquid level control system
7-3.2 Proportional level controller
7-4 Synthesis of feedback controllers
 Course Contents
8. Cascade Control
8-1 A process example
8-2 Stability considerations
8-3 Implementation and tuning of controllers
8-3.1 Two level cascade systems
8-3.2 Three level cascade systems
8-4 Other process examples
 Objectives of Course
 The structure of chemical processes become increasingly complex, due the
better management of energy and raw materials. As a consequence, the
design of control system for complete plants now constitutes the focal point
engineering interest, rather than controller designs for single processing
units. The design of a control system has become intimately related to the
design of process itself.

 Designing a control system implies the identification of control objectives;

selection of appropriate measurement and manipulation, as well as the
determination of loops connecting theses; and identification of proper
control laws.

 The advent and rapid growth of digital computers has revolutionized the
practice of chemical process control and has allowed the industrial
implementation of advanced control concepts.
 Emerging Aspects after Reading this Course

 Chemical process control is a subject of study with its own challenges. It is

intimately related to chemical engineering science and practice.
 The design of a control system is not a mathematical problem, but should
be perceived as engineering task, with all its attractive challenges and
practical shortcomings.
 A good understanding of physical and chemical phenomena taking place in
a chemical process is of paramount importance for the design of simple and
effective control schemes.
 Several alternative control configurations are usually possible for a given
processing unit or a complete plant. The selection of the “best” among
them is the central question to be resolved.
 There exist a plethora of analytical tools and design methodologies that one
should be familiar with before attempting to tackle process control
problems.
 Chapter One
Introduction to Automatic
Control System
Why do we need automatic process
control?
• Industrial processes are not static but rather very dynamic;
they are continuously changing as a result of many types of
disturbances.
• It is principally because of this dynamic nature that control
systems are needed to continuously and automatically watch
over the variables that must be controlled.
Why do we need automatic process
control?

• Enhanced process safety

• Satisfying environmental constraints

• Meeting ever-stricter product quality specifications

• More efficient use of raw materials and energy

• Increased profitability
 Automatic Control System

 It is concerned with maintaining the process variables:

 Temperature
 Pressure
 Volume
 Flows
 Compositions

 Processes are dynamic in nature.

 Changes are always occurring and if actions are not taken in response, then
the important process variables (related to product quality, safety and
production rates)- will not achieve design conditions :
controller control
process
element

sensor
Automatic Control System
 Control Terminologies

Controlled Variables - These are the variables which

quantify the performance or quality of the final product,
which are also called output variables.
Manipulated Variables - These input variables are
adjusted dynamically to keep the controlled variables at
their set-points.
Disturbances - These are also called the “load” variables
and represent inputs that can cause the controlled variables
to deviate from their respective set points.
 Control Terminologies

Servo control - The set-point signal is changed and the

manipulated variable is adjusted appropriately to achieve
the new operating conditions.
Regulatory control – The set-point is fixed at a constant
value. When any disturbance enters the system, the
manipulated variable is adjusted to drive the controlled
variable back to its fixed set-point.
 Control Terminologies
Block diagram- Diagram that indicates the flow of information
around the control system and the function of each part of the
system.

Closed loop- In closed loop, the measured value of the controlled

variable is fed back to the controller.

Controlled variable- process variable that we want to maintain at

a particular value.

Controller- A device that outputs a signal to the process based on

the magnitude of the error signal. A proportional controller
outputs a signal proportional to the error.

Error- The difference between the values of the set point and the
measured variable.
 Control Terminologies
Disturbances- Any process variables that can cause the controlled
variable to change. In general, disturbances are variables that we
have no control over.

Manipulated variable- Process variable that is adjusted to bring

the controlled variable back to the set point.

Controlled variable- process variable that we want to maintain at

a particular value.

Negative feedback- In negative feedback, the error is the

difference between the set point and the measured variable (this is
usually the desired configuration).

Offset- The steady-state value of the error.

 Control Terminologies
Open loop- In open loop, the measured value of the controlled
variable is not fed back to the controller.

Positive feedback- In positive feedback, the measured

temperature is added to the set point. (This is usually an
undesirable situation and frequently leads to instability.)

Set point- The desired value of the controlled variable.

Set point tracking- One goal of a control system, which is to

force the system to follow or “track” requested set point changes.
Chapter 1
 Illustrative Example 1: Blending System

Notation:
• w1, w2 and w are mass flow rates
• x1, x2 and x are mass fractions of component A
Assumptions:
1. w1 is constant
2. x2 = constant = 1 (stream 2 is pure A)
3. Perfect mixing in the tank

Control Objective:
Keep x at a desired value (or “set point”) xsp, by adjusting flow
rate w2, despite variations in x1..

Terminology:
• Controlled variable (or “output variable”): x
• Manipulated variable (or “input variable”): w2
• Disturbance variable (or “load variable”): x1
Design Question: What value of w2 is required to have
x  xSP ?

Overall balance:
0  w1  w2  w (1)
Component balance:

w1x1  w2 x2  wx  0 (2)

(The overbars denote nominal steady-state design values.)

• At the design conditions, x  xSP. Substitute Eq. (1),x  xSP and

x2  1 , then solve Eq. (2) for w2:
xSP  x1
w2  w1 (3)
1  xSP
 Possible Control Strategies
Method 1. Measure x and adjust w2.
Intuitively, if x is too high, we should reduce w2
and vice versa.
1. Manual control
2. Automatic control with proportional feedback
control law.

w2  t   w2  Kc  xSP  x  t  (4)

Method 2. Measure x1 and adjust w2.
Thus, if x1 is greater than x1, we would decrease w2 so
that
w2  w2 ;

One approach: Consider Eq. (3) and replace x1 and w2

with x1(t) and w2(t) to get a control law:
xSP  x1  t 
w2  t   w1 (5)
1  xSP
Because Eq. (3) applies only at steady state, it is not
clear how effective the control law in (5) will be for
transient conditions.
Method 3. Measure x1 and x, adjust w2.
• This approach is a combination of Methods 1 and 2.

Method 4. Use a larger tank.

• If a larger tank is used, fluctuations in x1 will tend to be damped
out due to the larger capacitance of the tank contents.
• However, a larger tank means an increased capital cost.
 Classification of Control Strategies

Method Measured Manipulated Category

Variable Variable

1 x w2 FB

2 x1 w2 FF

3 x1 and x w2 FF/FB

4 - - Design change
Illustrative Example: Hot Water Control Tank
Illustrative Example 2: Hot Water Control Tank
 Transmission Signals and Control Systems

Types of signals
– Pneumatic signals
– Electrical signals
– Digital or discrete signals

Pneumatic Signals

• OR air pressure, normally ranges between 3 and 15 psig.

• The usual representation for pneumatic signals in process and

instrumentation diagrams (P&IDs) is:

 Transmission Signals and Control Systems

Electrical Signals

• Normally ranges between 4 and 20 mA.

• Less often, a range of 10 to 50 mA, 1 to 5 V, or 0 to 10 V is used.

• The usual representation for this signal in P&IDS is a series of dashed lines

such as:
 Transmission Signals and Control Systems

Digital or Discrete Signals

• Zeros and ones.

• The usual representation for this signal in P&IDS is:

 Most times signals are referred as percentages instead of using psig or mA.

That is, 0%-100% is equivalent to 3 to 15 psig or 4 to 20 mA.

 Importance of Signals

• Signals are used to convey information.

• The signal from the transmitter to the controller is used by the transmitter

to inform the controller of the value of the controlled variable.

• The controller uses its output signal to tell the final control element what

to do: how much to open if it is a valve, how fast to run if it is a variable-

speed pump, and so on.

• This signal is not the measurement in engineering units but rather is a mA,

psig, volt, or any other signal that is proportional to the measurement.

 Transducer

• It is often necessary to change one type of signal into another. This is done

by a transducer, or converter.

• There may be a need to change from an electrical signal in milliamperes

(mA) to a pneumatic signal in pounds per square inch, gauge (psig). This is

done by the use of a current (I) to pneumatic (P) transducer (I/P).

• The input signal may be 4 to 20 mA and the output 3 to 15 psig.

 Transducer

• An analog-to- digital converter (A to D) changes from a mA, or a volt signal

to a digital signal.

• There are many other types of transducers: digital-to-analog (D to A),

pneumatic-to-current (P/I), voltage-to-pneumatic (E/P), pneumatic-to-

voltage (P/E), and so on.

• The term analog refers to a controller, or any other instrument, that is

either pneumatic or electrical.

Feedback Control
Possible disturbances
• Inlet process temperature, Ti(t)

• The process flow, f(t)

• The energy content of the steam,

• Ambient conditions,

• Process fluid composition

• Fouling
 Trial-and-error Operation
• If the inlet process temperature increases, thus creating a disturbance, its effect must
propagate through the heat exchanger before the outlet temperature increases.

• Once this temperature changes, the signal from the transmitter to the controller also changes.

• It is then that the controller becomes aware that a deviation from set point has occurred and
that it must compensate for the disturbance by manipulating the steam valve.

• The controller signals the valve to close and thus to decrease the steam flow.

• It is instructive to note that the outlet temperature first increases, because of the increase in
inlet temperature, but it then decreases even below set point and continues to oscillate around
set point until the temperature finally stabilizes.

• This oscillatory response is typical of feedback control and shows that it is essentially a trial-
and-error operation.

• That is, when the controller “notices” that the outlet temperature has increased above the set
point, it signals the valve to close, but the closure is more than required.
 Feedback Control
Distinguishing feature:
Measure the controlled variable.
• Advantages:
• Corrective action is taken regardless of the source of the disturbance.

• Reduces sensitivity of the controlled variable to disturbances and changes in the

process.

• A very simple technique that compensates for all disturbances.

• The feedback controller works with minimum knowledge of the process. In fact, the
only information it needs is in which direction to move.

• Disadvantages:
• Very oscillatory responses, or even instability.

• It can compensate for a disturbance only after the controlled variable has deviated
from set point.

• Disturbance must propagate through the entire process before the feedback control
scheme can initiate action to compensate for it.
Feedforward Control
Feedforward Control
• Distinguishing Feature:

o Measure a disturbance.
o Its simplicity accounts for its popularity.
o The objective of feedforward control is to measure disturbances and compensate for
them before the controlled variable deviates from set point.

• Advantage:
o Correct for disturbance before it upsets the process.
o Deviation of the controlled variable is minimized

• Disadvantage:

o Must be able to measure the disturbance

o No corrective action for unmeasured disturbances.
Combination of both
controls
 Background needed for Process Control
• To be successful in the practice of automatic process control, the engineer must first understand the
principles of process engineering.

• I assumes that the reader is familiar with the basic principles of thermodynamics, fluid flow, heat
transfer, separation processes, reaction processes, and the like.

• For the study of process control, it is also fundamental to understand how processes behave
dynamically.

• Thus it is necessary to develop the set of equations that describes different processes. This is called
modeling.

• To do this requires knowledge of the basic principles mentioned in the previous paragraph and of
mathematics through differential equations. Laplace transforms are used heavily in process control.

• This greatly simplifies the solution of differential equations and the dynamic analysis of processes
and their control systems.
 Summary
• Industrial processes are not static but rather very dynamic; they are continuously
changing as a result of many types of disturbances.

• It is principally because of this dynamic nature that control systems are needed to
continuously and automatically watch over the variables that must be controlled.

• The working principles of a control system can be summarized with the three letters
M, D, and A.

• M refers to the measurement of process variables. D refers to the decision made on

the basis of the measurement of those process variables. Finally, A refers to the
action taken on the basis of that decision.

• The fundamental components of a process control system were also presented:

sensor/ transmitter, controller, and final control element.
 Summary
• The most common types of signals pneumatic, electrical, and digital-were
introduced, along with the purpose of transducers.

• Two control strategies were presented: feedback and feedforward control.

PROBLEMS
• Draw a block diagram for the control system that maintains the
water level in a toilet tank.

• Draw a block diagram for the control system for a home oven.

• Instrumentation Diagram: Automatic Shower Temperature

Control. Sketch the process and instrumentation diagram for an
automatic control system to control the temperature of the
water from a common shower-that is, a system that will
automatically do what you do when you adjust the temperature
of the water when you take a shower. Use the standard ISA
instrumentation symbols. Identify the measurement (M),
decision (D), and action (A) devices of your control system.
 Chapter 2

Mathematical Tools for Control

System Analysis
 Process Dynamics
• It is basically the study of process variables that are
changing with respect to time or that are time
dependent.

• The dynamic behavior of any process variable is

presented by differential equations.

• Different mathematical tools are used for analyzing the

process dynamics and these are mainly linearization
and Laplace transform.
 Why Laplace Transform?
• Laplace transforms are used to convert the
differential equations that represent the dynamic
behavior of process output variables into algebraic
equations.

• It is then possible to isolate in the resulting algebraic

equations what is characteristic of the process, the
transfer function, from what is characteristic of the
input forcing functions.
 The Laplace Transform
Definition

• In the analysis of process dynamics, the process

variables and control signals are functions of time, t.
The Laplace transform of a function of time, f(t), is
defined by the formula:
 The Laplace Transform
• The Laplace transform changes the function of time, f(t), into
a function in the Laplace transform variable, F(s).

• The limits of integration show that the Laplace transform

contains information on the function f(t) for positive time
only.

• Because in process control, as in life, nothing can be done

about the past (negative time); control action can affect the
process only in the future.
 Real Differentiation Theorem

In process control, it is normally assumed that the initial

conditions are at steady state (time derivatives are zero)
and that the variables are deviations from initial conditions
(initial value is zero).
 Real Integration Theorem
This theorem establishes the relationship between
the Laplace transform of a function and that of its
integral.
 Real Translation Theorem
• This theorem deals with the translation of a function in the time
axis.
• The translated function is the original function delayed in time.
• Time delays are caused by transportation lag, a phenomenon
also known as dead time.
• Response obtained after a certain delay and this delay time is
called as dead time.
Real Translation Theorem
 Real Translation Theorem

• Because the Laplace transform does not contain

information about the original function for negative
time, the delayed function must be zero for all times
less than the time delay.
Real Translation Theorem
 Final Value Theorem
• This theorem allows to figure out the final, or steady-
state, value of a function from its transform.

• If the limit of f(t) as t approaches to ∞ exists, then it

can be found from its Laplace transform as follows:
 Complex Differentiation Theorem
• This theorem is useful for evaluating the transforms of
functions that involve powers of the independent
variable, t. It states that:
 Complex Translation Theorem
• This theorem is useful for evaluating transforms of
functions that involve exponential functions of time. It
states that:
 Initial Value Theorem
• This theorem enables us to calculate the initial value of
a function from its transform.