Chapter Nine:

Qualitative Methods
 Chapter Outline
• The Components of Qualitative Methods
• The Characteristics of Qualitative Research
• Qualitative Designs
• The Researcher’s Role
• Data Collection Procedures
• Data Recording Procedures
• Data Analysis and Interpretation
• Validity and Reliability
• Writing the Qualitative Report
• Example 9.1. Qualitative Procedures
 Qualitative Methods
Questions for designing a qualitative procedure: See Table 9.1
1. Are the basic characteristics of qualitative studies mentioned?
2. Is the specific type of qualitative design to be used in the study mentioned?
3. Does the reader gain an understanding of the researcher's role in the study and how they
may shape interpretations made in the study?
4. Is the purposeful sampling strategy for sites and individuals identified?
5. Are the specific forms of data collection mentioned and a rationale given for their use?
6. Are the procedures for recording information during the data collection detailed?
7. Are the data analysis steps identified?
8. Is there evidence that the researcher has organized the data for analysis?
9. Has the researcher reviewed the data generally to obtain a sense of the information?
10. Has the researcher coded the data?
11. Have the codes been developed to form a description and/or to identify themes?
12. Are the themes interrelated to show a higher level of analysis and abstraction?
13. Are the ways that the data will be represented?
14. Have the bases for interpreting the analysis been specified?
15. Has the researcher mentioned the outcome of the study?
16. Have multiple strategies been cited for validating the findings?
 Components of Qualitative Methods
• Tell readers about the design being used in the study
• Discuss the sample for the study
• Discuss data collection
• Outline data analysis steps
• Discuss how to present the data, interpret it, validate
it and indicate potential outcomes of the study
• Include a methods section that mentions the nature
of the final written product
 Characteristics of Qualitative
Research
• Review the needs of potential audiences for the proposal
• Discuss characteristics of qualitative research if audience is
not knowledgeable
• Characteristics include:
– Natural setting
– Researcher as key instrument
– Multiple sources of data
– Inductive and deductive data analysis
– Participants' meanings
– Emergent design
– Reflexivity
– Holistic account
 Strategies of Inquiry
• Strategies of inquiry focus on data collection,
analysis, and writing
• Five popular examples:
– Narrative
– Phenomenology
– Ethnography
– Case study
– Grounded theory
 Qualitative Design
In writing a procedure for a qualitative proposal:
• Identify the specific design that you will be using and
provide references to the literature
• Provide some background information about the design
• Discuss why it is an appropriate strategy to use in the
proposed study
• Identify how the use of the design will shape many
aspects of the design process, such as the title, the
problem, the research questions, the data collection and
analysis and report write-up
 The Researcher’s Role
• Researcher has sustained intensive experience with
participants
• Strategic, ethical, and personal issues can arise
• Researchers should
– Discuss prior experiences with participants, setting or
research problem
– Indicate how these experiences may potentially shape the
interpretations the researchers make during the study
– Comment on the connection between the researchers and
participants and the research site that may unduly
influence the researcher's interpretations
– Indicate steps to get IRB permissions
 The Researcher’s Role
– Discuss steps to gain entry into the setting
Why was the site chosen for study?
What activities will occur at the site during the
research study?
Will the study be disruptive?
How will the results be reported?
What will the gatekeeper gain from the study?
– Comment about ethical issues that may arise and
indicate how the research will address each
 Data Collection Procedures
• Identify the purposefully select individuals and sites
for the study
• Indicate the number of sites and participants to be
involved in the study
• Select the type(s) of data to be collected
– Qualitative observations
– Qualitative interviews
– Qualitative documents
– Qualitative audio-visual materials
See Table 9.2
 Data Collection Procedures
• Include data collection types that go beyond
typical observations and interviews.
• These unusual forms create reader interest in
a proposal and can capture useful information
that observations and interviews may miss.
• See Table 9.3
 Data Recording Procedures
Observational protocol: record information while observing
– Record descriptive notes, reflective notes, and demographic
information during observations

Interview protocol: for asking questions and recording

answers
– A heading
– Instructions for the interviewer to follow
– The questions
– Ice breaker, 4-5 questions, concluding question
– Probes for the 4-5 questions
– Space between questions to record answers
– A final thank-you statement
– A log to keep a record of documents collected for analysis
 Data Analysis and Interpretation
• Specify the steps in analyzing the various forms of qualitative
data by segmenting and taking them apart
• Data analysis will proceed hand-in-hand with data collection
and the write-up of findings
• Dense and rich data means presentation will be an aggregate
with small number of themes
• Specify the use of computer data analysis program
• Analysis steps embedded within specific qualitative designs
• Blend the general steps with the specific research strategy
steps
Data Analysis in Qualitative Research
 Data Analysis and Interpretation
Step 1. Organize
and prepare the
data for analysis
(e.g. transcribing
interviews)
Step 2. Read or
look at all the
data
 Data Analysis and Interpretation
Step 3. Start coding all of the data
• Codes on topics that readers would expect to find, based on
the past literature and common sense
• Codes that are surprising and that were not anticipated at the
beginning of the study
• Codes that are unusual, and that are, in and of themselves, of
conceptual interest to readers
• Develop codes only on the basis of the emerging information
• Use predetermined codes and then fit the data to them
• Use some combination of emerging and predetermined codes
 Data Analysis and Interpretation
Step 4. Use the coding process to generate a
description of the setting or people as well as
categories or themes for analysis
Step 5. Discuss how the description and themes
will be represented
Step 6. Present interpretation(s) by capturing
the essence of the idea
Reliability, Validity, and Generalizability
• Qualitative validity
– Researcher uses procedures to check the accuracy of the findings
• Triangulate  Negative information
• Member checking  Prolonged time in the field
• Rich, thick description  Peer debriefing
• Clarify bias  External auditor

• Qualitative reliability
– Researcher uses an approach that is consistent across different
analysts and projects

• Qualitative generalization
– Focus of qualitative research on the particularity, not generalizability
 The Qualitative Write-Up
See Example 9.1
• Discuss strategies for writing up the
qualitative findings
– Develop description and themes
– Match write-up to strategy of inquiry
– Use quotes
– Include some conversation
– Use the first person form
– Use metaphors and analogies
– Discuss how findings will be related to theories
and literature