Unit 4

Measurement and Scaling

VARIABLES:

A variable is anything that can take on

differing or varying values.
Examples of variables are: production
units, absentiesm and motivation.

2
TYPES OF VARIABLES :

1- Dependent variable
The dependent variable is the variable of
primary interest to the researcher. Through
the analysis of the dependent variable is
possible to find answers or solutions to the
problem

3
2- Independent variable
The independent variable is generally
conjectured that an independent variable is
one that influences the independent
variable in either a positive or negative way.
That is, when the independent variable is
present, the dependent variable is also
present, and with each unit of increase in
the independent variable, there is an
increase or decrease in the dependent
variable.
4
Independent and Dependent Variables

New Product Stock Market

Success Price
Independent Variable Dependent Variable
Independent and Dependent Variables

Number of books Reading abilities

Independent variable Dependent variable

 Moderating Variables

Number of books Reading abilities

Independent variable Dependent variable

Parents’ literacy

Moderating variable
 Intervening Variables

• a factor that affects the observed

phenomenon but cannot be seen, measured,
or manipulated, thus its effect must be
inferred from the effects of the independent
and moderating variables on the dependent
variable.
• the introduction of the four-day workweek
will lead to higher productivity by
increasing job satisfaction.
 Intervening Variables

Time: t1 t2 t3

Workforce Creative Organizational

diversity synergy effectiveness

Independent Intervening Dependent

variable variable variable
 Intervening Variables

t1 t2 t3

Workforce Creative Organizational

diversity synergy effectiveness

Independent Intervening Dependent

variable variable variable

Managerial
expertise

Moderating
variable
 THE NATURE OF MEASUREMENT

1. The process of assigning numbers or scores to

attributes of people or objects.
2. The process of describing some property of a
phenomenon of interest by assigning numbers in a
reliable and valid way
Precise measurement requires:
a) Careful conceptual definition – i.e. careful definition of
the concept (e.g. loyalty) to be measured
b) Operational definition of the concept
c) Assignment rules by which numbers or scores are
assigned to different levels of the concept that an
individual (or object) possesses.
 1. Conceptual Definition
 Concept - A generalized idea about a class of
objects, attributes, occurrences, or processes.
 Examples: Gender, Age, Education, brand
loyalty, satisfaction, attitude, market orientation
 Construct - A concept that is measured with
multiple variables.
 Examples: Brand loyalty, satisfaction, attitude,
market orientation, socio-economic status
 Variable - Anything that varies or changes
from one instance to another; can exhibit
differences in value, usually in magnitude or
strength, or in direction.
 1. Conceptual Definition
 Concepts must be precisely defined for effective
measurement.
 E.g. consider the following definitions of “brand
loyalty”:
1. “The degree to which a consumer consistently
purchases the same brand within a product
class.” (Peter & Olson)
2. “A favorable attitude toward, and consistent
purchases of, a particular brand”. (Wilkie, p.276)
 The two definitions have different implications for
measurement – they imply different
operationalizations of the concept of brand loyalty
 2. Operational Definition/Operationalization
 Operational definition - A definition that gives meaning to a
concept by specifying what the researcher must do (i.e. activities
or operations that should be performed) in order to measure the
concept under investigation.
 Operationalization - The process of identifying scales that
correspond to variance in a concept.
For example:
 Conceptual definition # 1 for brand loyalty in the previous slide
implies that in order to measure loyalty for brand A (operational
definition), you will need to:
1) Observe consumers’ brand purchases over a period of time, and
2) Compute the percent of purchases going to brand A
 For conceptual definition # 2 you will need to:
1) Observe consumers’ brand purchases over a period of time,
2) Compute the percent of purchases going to brand A, and
3) Ask consumers questions to determine their attitudes toward
brand A
 3. Rules of Measurement
 Guidelines established by the researcher for assigning
numbers or scores to different levels of the concept (or
attribute) that different individuals (or objects) possess
 The process is facilitated by the operational definition.
 For example, if you operationalized brand loyalty as “purchase
sequences” (conceptual definition # 1), then you may establish the
following rules for assigning scores:
 If consumer purchased brand A:

 90% or more –> loyalty for brand A = 1 (Extremely loyal)

 80 - 89% –> loyalty for brand A = 2 (Very loyal)
 70 - 79% –> loyalty for brand A = 3 (Loyal)
 Etc.
 In this case, we have assigned the numbers 1, 2, 3 to different
levels of loyalty toward brand A. We have measured loyalty
for brand A.
 Importance of measurement

• research conclusions are only as good as

the data on which they are based
• observations must be quantifiable in order
to subject them to statistical analysis
• the dependent variable(s) must be
measured in any quantitative study.
• the more precise, sensitive the method of
measurement, the better.
 MEASUREMENT SCALES
 To effectively carry out any measurement (whether
in the physical or social sciences) we need to use
some form of a scale.
 A scale is any series of items (numbers) arranged
along a continuous spectrum of values for the purpose
of quantification (i.e. for the purpose of placing
objects based on how much of an attribute they
possess)
 E.g. the thermometer consists of numbers arranged
in a continuous spectrum to indicate the magnitude
of “heat” possessed by an object.
 LEVELS OF SCALE MEASUREMENT
 Numbers assigned in measurement can take on different
levels of meaning depending on one of four mapping
characteristics possessed by the numbers:
1. Classification - The numbers are used only to group or
sort responses. No order exists
2. Order - The numbers are ordered. One number is greater
than, less than, or equal to another
3. Distance - Differences between the numbers are ordered.
The difference between any pair of numbers is greater
than, less than, or equal to the difference between any
other pair of numbers
4. Origin - The number series has a unique origin indicated
by the number zero
 The type of mapping characteristic assumed depends on the
properties of the attribute (or construct) being measured
The Four Levels of Scale Measurement/ Data
Types
 Four levels of scale measurement result from this mapping
1. Nominal Scale: a scale in which the numbers or letters assigned
to an object serve only as labels for identification or
classification, e.g. Gender (Male=1, Female=2)
2. Ordinal Scale: a scale that arranges objects or alternatives
according to their magnitude in an ordered relationship, e.g.
Academic status (Sophomore=1, Freshman=2, Junior=3, etc
3. Interval Scale: a scale that both arranges objects according to
their magnitude, distinguishes this ordered arrangement in units
of equal intervals, but does not have a natural zero representing
absence of the given attribute, e.g. the temperature scale (40oC
is not twice as hot as 20oC)
4. Ratio Scale: a scale that has absolute rather than relative
quantities and an absolute (natural) zero where there is an
absence of a given attribute, e.g. income, age.
Nominal, Ordinal, Interval, and Ratio Scales Provide Different Information
Characteristics of Different Levels of Scale Measurement
Type of Data Numerical Descriptive
Examples
Scale Characteristics Operation Statistics
Nominal Classification but no Counting Frequency in each Gender (1=Male,
order, distance, or category 2=Female)
origin Percent in each
category
Mode
Ordinal Classification and Rank ordering Median Academic status
order but no Range (1=Freshman,
distance or unique Percentile ranking 2=Sophomore,
origin 3=Junior,
4=Senior)
Interval Classification, order, Arithmetic Mean Temperature in
and distance but no operations that Standard deviation degrees
unique origin preserve order and Variance Satisfaction on
magnitude semantic
differential scale
Ratio Classification, order, Arithmetic Geometric mean Age in years
distance and unique operations on Coefficient of Income in Saudi
origin actual quantities variation riyals

Note: All statistics appropriate for lower-order scales (nominal being lowest) are appropriate for
higher-order scales (ratio being the highest)
 Attitude Measurement and Scale
construction
A more current definition of attitude ---

A psychological tendency that is expressed

by evaluating a particular entity with some
degree of favor or disfavor *

* From: Eagley and Chaiken (1993). The Psychology of Attitudes.

 Components of Attitudes

A) Affective (Emotional)

B) Behavioral

C) Cognitive (Thinking)
 A Classification of Scaling Techniques
SCALING TECHNIQUES

Comparative Non-Comparative
Scales Scales

Paired Rank Constant Others Continuous Itemized

Comparison Order Sum Rating Rating
Scales Scales

Semantic
Likert Stapel
Differential
 Types of Scaling Techniques
 COMPARATIVE SCALES
• Involve the respondent directly comparing stimulus objects.
• e.g. How does Pepsi compare with Coke on sweetness

 NONCOMPARATIVE SCALES
• Respondent scales each stimulus object independently of
other objects
•e.g. How would you rate the sweetness of Pepsi on a scale of 1
to 10
 COMPARATIVE SCALES
Paired Comparison
Please indicate which of the following airlines you prefer
by circling your more preferred airline in each pair:
Air Canada WestJet
Air Transat Air Canada
Zip WestJet
WestJet Air Transat
Air Canada Zip
Zip Air Transat
 COMPARATIVE SCALES
Constant Sum Scales
Allocate a total of 100 points among the following soft-
drinks depending on how favorable you feel toward each;
the more highly you think of each soft-drink, the more
points you should allocate to it. (Please check that the
allocated points add to 100.)
Coca-Cola _____ points
7-Up _____ points
Dr. Pepper _____ points
Tab _____ points
Pepsi-Cola _____ points
100 points
Constant Sum Scale
Please divide 100 points among the following characteristics
so the division reflects the relative importance of each
characteristic to you in the selection of a bank
Hours of service ________________
Friendliness _______________
Distance from home ________________
Investment vehicles ________________
Parking facilities __________________
 COMPARATIVE SCALES
Rank-Order Scales
Rank the following soft-drinks from 1 (best) to 5 (worst)
according to your taste preference:
Coca-Cola _____
7-Up _____
Dr. Pepper _____
Pepsi-Cola _____
Mountain Dew _____

–Top and bottom rank choices are ‘easy’

–Middle ranks are usually most ‘difficult’
 Comparative Scales

Rank Order Scale

Indicate your preferred type of music with a 1,
your second favorite with a 2, and so on for each
type of music:
____ Heavy Metal
____ Alternative
____ Urban Contemporary
____ Classical
____ Country
Instructions
Rank the various brands of toothpaste in order of preference. Begin by picking out
the one brand that you like most and assign it a number 1. Then find the second
most preferred- brand and assign it a number 2. Continue this procedure until you
have ranked all the brands of toothpaste in order of preference. The least
preferred brand should be assigned a a rank of 10. No two brands should receive
the same rank number. The criterion of preference is entirely up to you. There is
no right or wrong answer. Just try to be consistent.
Brand Rank Order
1. Crest
2. Colgate
3. Aim
4. Mentadent
5. Macleans
6. Ultra Brite
7. Close Up
8. Pepsodent
9. Plus White
10. Stripe
 COMPARATIVE SCALES

Compared to Chevrolet, Ford is:

less about the more

innovative same innovative

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
 Non comparative scale
Continuous scale
• How would you rate Marketing Research to
other courses this term
The worst X X The Best
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
 Itemized Rating Scales

Semantic The Likert scale Staple scale

Differential
Scale
 Non-Comparative Scales
Semantic Differential Scale
Here are a number of statements that could be used to describe
K-Mart. For each statement tick ( X ) the box that best
describes your feelings about K-Mart.

Modern Store Old- fashioned store

Low prices High prices
Unfriendly staff Friendly staff
Narrow product range Wide product range
Sophisticated customers Unsophisticated customers
 Itemised Rating Scales

Likert scale

Strongly disagree Neither agree Strongly

agree agree nor agree
disagree
Market research is the most 1 2 3 4 5
interesting subject known to
man
The Likert scale
AGREEMENT

•Strongly Agree
•Agree Strongly
•Agree •Agree Moderately •Agree
•Undecided •Agree Slightly •Agree
•Undecided
•Disagree •Disagree Slightly •Disagree
•Disagree Moderately •Disagree
•Strongly Disagree •Disagree Strongly

•Completely Agree
•Agree Very Strongly •Mostly Agree •Disagree Strongly
•Agree Strongly •Yes •Slightly Agree •Disagree
•Agree •Tend to Disagree
•Slightly Disagree
•Disagree •No •Tend to Agree
•Disagree Strongly •Mostly Disagree •Agree
•Disagree Very Strongly •Completely •Agree Strongly
Disagree
FREQUENCY

•Very Frequently •Always

•Always
•Frequently •Very Frequently •Almost Always
•Usually
•Occasionally •Occasionally •To a Considerable Degree
•About Half the Time
•Rarely •Rarely •Occasionally
•Seldom
•Very Rarely •Very Rarely •Seldom
•Never
•Never •Never

•A Great Deal •Always

•Often
•Much •Very Often
•Sometimes
•Somewhat •Sometimes
•Seldom
•Little •Rarely
•Never
•Never •Never
IMPORTANCE

•Very Important
•Important
•Moderately Important •Very Important
•Of Little Importance •Moderately Important
•Unimportant •Unimportant

QUALITY

•Very Good •Extremely Poor

•Good •Below Average •Good
•Barely Acceptable •Average •Fair
•Poor •Above Average •Poor
•Very Poor •Excellent
LIKELIHOOD

•To a Great Extent

•Like Me •Somewhat •True
•Unlike Me •Very Little •False
•Not at All

•Almost Always True

•Definitely
•Usually True •True of Myself
•Very Probably
•Often True •Mostly True of Myself
•Probably
•Occasionally True •About Halfway True of Myself
•Possibly
•Sometimes But Infrequently True •Slightly True Of Myself
•Probably Not
•Usually Not True •Not at All True of Myself
•Very Probably Not
•Almost Never True
 A Stapel Scale for Measuring a Store’s Image

Select a plus number for words that you think describe the store
accurately. The more accurately you think the work describes the
store, the larger the plus number you should choose. Select a
minus number for words you think do not describe the store
accurately. The less accurately you think the word describes the
store, the larger the minus number you should choose, therefore,
you can select any number from +3 for words that you think are
very accurate all the way to -3 for words that you think are very
inaccurate.

+3
+2
+1
Wide Selection
-1
-2
-3
Staple Scale
The following questions concern your ratings of several suppliers that provide
products for use in your store.

XYZ
Poor Product -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
Selection

Costly Products -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5

Fast Service -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5

High Quality -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
Products

Innovative -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
 Characteristics of Good Measurement
Scales
1. Reliability
• The degree to which a measure accurately captures an
individual’s true outcome without error; Accuracy
• synonymous with repetitive consistency
2. Validity
• The degree to which a measure faithfully represents the
underlying concept; Fidelity
3. Sensitivity
• The ability to discriminate meaningful differences
between attitudes. The more categories the more sensitive
(not less reliable)
4. Generalizability
• How easy is scale to administer and interpret
 Validity and Reliability
If a measure is valid, then it is reliable
If it is not reliable, it can not be valid
If it is reliable, it may or may not be valid
Reliability can be more easily determined than
• validity
• Reliable = consistent in producing the same
results every time the measure is used
• Valid = measuring what it is supposed to
measure
 Reliability and Validity

Neither Reliable Reliable But Reliable

Nor Valid Not Valid And Valid
 RELIABILITY

 The degree to which a measure is free from

random error and therefore gives consistent
results.
 An indicator of the measure’s internal
consistency
 Test-Retest
Stability
(Repeatability)

Reliability Splitting
halves
Internal
Consistency
Equivalent
forms
 Assessing Stability (Repeatability)
• Stability  the extent to which results
obtained with the measure can be reproduced.
1. Test-Retest Method
• Administering the same scale or measure to the same
respondents at two separate points in time to test for
stability.
• Test-Retest Reliability Problems
• The pre-measure, or first measure, may sensitize the
respondents and subsequently influence the results of
the second measure.
• Time effects that produce changes in attitude or other
maturation of the subjects.
 Assessing Internal Consistency
• Internal Consistency: the degree of homogeneity
among the items in a scale or measure
1. Split-half Method
• Assessing internal consistency by checking the results of one-
half of a set of scaled items against the results from the other
half.
• Coefficient alpha (α)
– The most commonly applied estimate of a multiple item
scale’s reliability.
– Represents the average of all possible split-half reliabilities
for a construct.
2. Equivalent forms
• Assessing internal consistency by using two scales designed to
be as equivalent as possible.
 VALIDITY
• The accuracy of a measure or the extent to
which a score truthfully represents a concept.
• The ability of a measure (scale) to measure what
it is intended measure.
• Establishing validity involves answers to the ff:
– Is there a consensus that the scale measures what it
is supposed to measure?
– Does the measure correlate with other measures of
the same concept?
– Does the behavior expected from the measure
predict actual observed behavior?
 Validity

Face or Criterion Construct

Content Validity Validity

Concurrent Predictive
 ASSESSING VALIDITY
1. Face or content validity:
Whether the individual items of a test represent what you
actually want to assess

The subjective agreement among professionals that a

scale logically appears to measure what it is intended
to measure.
Eg.: A.C. Nielsen television-rating system
It is based on People meter which mechanically
records when a sample household’s television is
engaged and what channel is selected.
 2. Construct Validity:
• The extent to which a test measures a theoretical
construct or attribute.
• Construct: Abstract concepts such as
intelligence, self-concept, motivation,
aggression and creativity that can be observed
by some type of instrument
• Construct validity is established by the degree to
which a measure confirms a network of related
hypotheses generated from a theory based on
the concept. Construct validity is established
during the statistical analysis of data.
• Construct validity implies that the empirical
evidence generated by a measure is consistent
with the theoretical logic about the concept
 Criterion-Related Validity
• A method for assessing the validity of an
instrument by comparing its scores with another
criterion known already to be a measure of the
same trait or skill.
Criterion-related validity is usually expressed as
a correlation between the test in question and
the criterion measure. The correlation
coefficient is referred to as a validity coefficient
Eg.: Physical concept of length
CONCURRENT VALIDITY
• The extent to which a procedure correlates
with the current behavior of subjects
• If the new measure is taken at the same time as
the criterion measure and it is shown to be valid
then it has concurrent validity.

• PREDICTIVE VALIDITY
• The extent to which a procedure allows accurate
predictions about a subject’s future behavior