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A) Theory of Attributes
B) Association of Attributes
A) Theory of Attributes : Basic Concepts
STATISTICS of VARIABLES:
ARBITRARY COMBINATION
NOTATION CLASS
DICHOTOMY OR OF
AND FREQUENCY
VAGUE ATTRIBUTES
TERMINOLOGY
CLASSIFICATION
A) DICHOTOMY
A classification of simple kind in which each class is divided into two sub
classes is called division by DICHOTOMY or TWO FOLD classification.
The number of observations falling in each class is its class frequency and is
denoted by enclosing the corresponding class symbol in brackets like (A),
(α), (B), (β), (AB), (α β) , (A β), (α B) etc.
CLASS FREQUENCIES
(α A) , (B β),(C y)
(A) ,(AB), (ABC) (α), (α β) , (α β y) (A β), (αB), (AB y) Frequencies of
Frequencies of Frequencies of Frequencies of Complementary
positive negative events. Mixed events. events.
Events.
CLASS FREQUENCY
CLASS FREQUENCY is further divided into three parts:
1) Positive Association
2) Negative Association
3) Independence
4) Complete Association & Disassociation
5) Total &Partial Association
6) Illusory Association
7) Chance Association
1) POSITIVE ASSOCIATION
Two attributes are said to be positive when they are present or absent
together.
EX: In a college the introduction of extra coaching leads to good results and
this happens for number of years. Thus we can say extra coaching and
good results have a positive association.
2) NEGATIVE ASSOCIATION
When the two attributes are present alternatively, that is, if one is
present the other is absent and if the other is present the former is
absent.
3) INDEPENDENCE
Absence of association means Independence. When two attributes do not
have the tendency to be present together ,they are called Independence.
For finding out the association of two attributes as complete, two courses
are open to us . Either we may say that for complete association all A’s
must be all B’s and all B’s must be A’s . i.e. they both should be appear in
equal numbers.
Similarly complete Disassociation may take place when no A’s are
B’s and no α’s are β ’s or when either of these statements is true.
5) TOTAL OR PARTIAL ASSOCIATION
The association between two attributes in the whole universe is called
total association .
6) ILLUSORY ASSOCIATION
YULE’S
COEFFICIENT COEFFICIENT
PROBABILITY PROPORTION COEFFICIENT
OF OF
METHOD METHOD OF
COLLIGATION CONTIGENCY
ASSOCIATION
TSCHUPROW’S
COEFFICIENTS
1) PROBABILITY METHOD
This method is based on the theory of probability for calculating the expected
Frequencies of the attributes.
EX: Expected frequency of (AB) = (A) ×(B)
N
In this method actually observed frequencies of attributes are compared with
their expected frequencies. If actually observed frequencies are equal to the
expected frequencies , the attributes are said to be independent.
LIMITATIONS:
The main limitation of this method is that with the help of this method we
can only find out the nature of association between the attributes ,whether
the association between them is Positive , Negative or Independent. We
cannot determine the degree of association.
2) PROPORTION METHOD
If the proportion of A’s amongst the B’s is greater than among the not
B’s ( or β ’s ) the two attributes A& B are positively associated.
If the proportion of A’s among B’s is less than the among not B’s ( or β ’s ) then the
two attributes A and B are negatively associated.
LIMITATIONS:
This method can only determine the nature of association between attributes
that is whether it is positive or negative or no association but it does not study
the degree of association whether it is high or low.
3) YULE’S COEFFICIENT OF ASSOCIATION:
1) If Q = 0 there is no association.
Q = +1 the association is positive and perfect.
Q = - 1 the association is negative and perfect.
Generally Q lies between +1 and -1.
2) Yule’s coefficient is independent of the relative proportion of A’s and α’s
in the data. The value of the coefficient remains the same if all the terms
containing A, α, B,β are multiplied by a constant.
4) COEFFICIENT OF COLLIGATION
1+ (AB) × (αβ)
(AB) × ( αβ)
5) COEFFICIENT OF CONTINGENCY
- - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - -
1) If attribute A is divided into S parts and the attribute B is divided into t parts,
then there are (s × t) cells in the table.
2) Each cell contains one ultimate class frequency. There are (s × t) ultimate
classes, the frequencies of which are denoted by (A 1B1), (A 1B2), ……(A 1Bt)
etc.
3) The total of frequencies in a particular class is found as follows:
(A1) = (A 1B1)+ (A 1B2)+(A 1B3)+……..+(A 1Bt).
(B2) = (A 1B1)+ (A 2B1)+(A 3B1)+ …….+(A sB1).
(As) = (A sB1)+ (A sB2)+ (A sB3)+……..+ (A s Bt).
4) Total number of frequencies in the universe is equal to N.
N = (A 1)+ (A 2)+ (A 3)+……..(A s).
Or N= (B 1)+ (B 2) + (B 3)+……..(B t).
LIMITATIONS:
T2 = C2
(1 – C2 ) (S -1) (t – 1)
This coefficient varies between 0 and 1 in the desired manner
when s = t.
T= C2
(1-C2 ) (S -1) (t – 1)
Thank You