Old Dominion University

Chapter 07
Analysis of Stress and Strain

Engr. Muhammad Fahim

mfahi001@odu.edu
hmf_engr@yahoo.com
1
 7.1 INTRODUCTION

• When working with stress elements, we must always keep in mind that only
one intrinsic state of stress exists at a point in a stressed body, regardless of
the orientation of the element being used to portray that state of stress.
• When we have two elements with different orientations at the same point in
a body, the stresses acting on the faces of the two elements are different, but
they still represent the same state of stress, namely, the stress at the point
under consideration.
• This situation is analogous to the representation of a force vector by its
components—although the components are different when the coordinate
axes are rotated to a new position, the force itself is the same.

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 7.2 PLANE STRESS

• This stress condition is very common because it exists at the surface of any
stressed body, except at points where external loads act on the surface.

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 7.2 PLANE STRESS
Stresses on Inclined Sections

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 7.2 PLANE STRESS
Stresses on Inclined Sections

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 7.2 PLANE STRESS
Transformation Equations for Plane Stress

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 7.2 PLANE STRESS
Example 7.1

Example 7.2

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 7.3 PRINICPAL STRESSES AND MAX SHEAR STRESS

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 7.3 PRINICPAL STRESSES AND MAX SHEAR STRESS

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 7.3 PRINICPAL STRESSES AND MAX SHEAR STRESS

FIG. 7-11 Elements in uniaxial and biaxial stress

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 7.3 PRINICPAL STRESSES AND MAX SHEAR STRESS

FIG. 7-12 (a) Element in pure shear, and (b) principal stresses.
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 7.3 PRINICPAL STRESSES AND MAX SHEAR STRESS

Chap 04 ` Engr. M. Fahim 12

 7.3 PRINICPAL STRESSES AND MAX SHEAR STRESS

Chap 04 ` Engr. M. Fahim 13

 7.3 PRINICPAL STRESSES AND MAX SHEAR STRESS

This equation shows that the planes of maximum shear stress occur at 45° to the principal planes.

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 7.3 PRINICPAL STRESSES AND MAX SHEAR STRESS

The maximum negative shear stress τmin has the same magnitude
but opposite sign.

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 7.3 PRINICPAL STRESSES AND MAX SHEAR STRESS

Thus, the maximum shear stress is equal to one-half the difference of the principal stresses.

This same normal stress acts on the planes of maximum negative shear stress.

In the particular cases of uniaxial stress and biaxial stress (Fig. 7-11), the planes of maximum shear
stress occur at 45° to the x and y axes. In the case of pure shear (Fig. 7-12), the maximum shear
stresses occur on the x and y planes.

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 7.3 PRINICPAL STRESSES AND MAX SHEAR STRESS

To derive these expressions for maximum in plane shear, we considered elements that were
obtained by rotating the xyz axes about the z axis, which is a principal axis.
We can also obtain maximum shear stresses by 45° rotations about the other two principal
axes (the x1 and y1 axes in Fig. 7-13b). As a result, we obtain three sets of maximum positive
and maximum negative shear stresses :

The stresses obtained by rotations about the x1

and y1 axes are called out-of-plane shear
stresses.
If σ1 and σ2 have the same sign, then one of the
first two expressions is numerically largest; if
they have opposite signs, the last expression is
largest.

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 7.3 PRINICPAL STRESSES AND MAX SHEAR STRESS
EXAMPLE 7-3

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 7.4 MOHR’S CIRCLE FOR PLANE STRESS

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 7.4 MOHR’S CIRCLE FOR PLANE STRESS

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 7.4 MOHR’S CIRCLE FOR PLANE STRESS

Note that as we move around Mohr’s circle (Fig. 7-16c), we encounter point P1
where the normal stress reaches its algebraically largest value and the shear stress is
zero. Hence, point P1 represents a principal stress and a principal plane.

The abscissa σ1 of point P1 gives the algebraically larger principal stress and its angle
2θp1 from the reference point A (where θ = 0) gives the orientation of the principal
plane.

The other principal plane, associated

with the algebraically smallest normal
stress, is represented by point P2,
diametrically opposite point P1

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 7.4 MOHR’S CIRCLE FOR PLANE STRESS
EXAMPLE 7-4

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 7.4 MOHR’S CIRCLE FOR PLANE STRESS
EXAMPLE 7-5

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 7.4 MOHR’S CIRCLE FOR PLANE STRESS
EXAMPLE 7-6

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 7.5 HOOKE’S LAW FOR PLANE STRESS

If we now limit our discussion to structures having only very small strains (as is usually the case), we
can disregard the terms in Eq. (7-43b) that consist of products of small strains.

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 7.5 HOOKE’S LAW FOR PLANE STRESS
Let us now return to materials that follow Hooke’s law and are subjected only to plane stress

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 7.5 HOOKE’S LAW FOR PLANE STRESS

In the case of a prismatic bar in tension, that is, uniaxial stress.

From this equation we see that the maximum possible value of Poisson’s ratio for common materials is
0.5, because a larger value means that the volume decreases when the material is in tension, which is
contrary to ordinary physical behavior.

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 7.5 HOOKE’S LAW FOR PLANE STRESS
Because the normal and shear strains occur independently, we can add the strain energies
from these two elements to obtain the total energy.
Work done by σx and σy respectively:

The sum of these two terms gives the strain energy stored in the element:

Thus, the strain-energy density (strain energy per unit volume) due to the normal stresses and strains is

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 7.5 HOOKE’S LAW FOR PLANE STRESS
The strain-energy density associated with the shear strains (Fig. 7-26) was evaluated
previously in Section 3.9 (see Eq. d of that section):

By combining the strain-energy densities for the normal and shear strains, we obtain the following
formula for the strain-energy density in plane stress:

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 7.5 HOOKE’S LAW FOR PLANE STRESS

Substituting for the strains from Eqs. (7-34) and (7-35), we obtain the
strain-energy density in terms of stresses alone:

In a similar manner, we can substitute for the stresses from Eqs. (7-36)
and (7-37) and obtain the strain-energy density in terms of strains alone:

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 7.5 HOOKE’S LAW FOR PLANE STRESS

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 7.5 HOOKE’S LAW FOR PLANE STRESS
These equations agree with the earlier equations, 7-18.

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 7.6 TRIAXIAL STRESS
Because the stresses σ and τ (Fig. 7-27b) are found from equations of
force equilibrium in the xy plane, they are independent of the normal
stress σz. Therefore, we can use the transformation equations of plane
stress, as well as Mohr’s circle for plane stress, when determining the
stresses σ and τ in triaxial stress.

FIG. 7-27 Element in triaxial stress

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 7.6 TRIAXIAL STRESS
The stresses acting on elements oriented at various angles to the x, y, and z axes can be
visualized with the aid of Mohr’s circles. For elements oriented by rotations about the z
axis, the corresponding circle is labeled A in Fig. 7-28..
In a similar manner, we can construct circles B and C for elements oriented by rotations
about the x and y axes, respectively. The radii of the circles represent the maximum shear
stresses given by Eqs. (7-52a, b, and c), and the absolute maximum shear stress is equal to
the radius of the largest circle. The normal stresses acting on the planes of maximum shear
stresses have magnitudes given by the abscissas of the centers of the respective circles.

FIG. 7-27 Element in triaxial stress

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 7.6 TRIAXIAL STRESS

Of course, we can also cut through the element in skew directions, so that the resulting
inclined planes are skew to all three coordinate axes.

The normal and shear stresses acting on such planes can be obtained by a more complicated
three dimensional analysis. However, the normal stresses acting on skew planes are
intermediate in value between the algebraically maximum and minimum principal stresses,
and the shear stresses on those planes are smaller (in absolute value) than the absolute
maximum shear stress obtained from Eqs. (7-52a, b, and c).

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 7.6 TRIAXIAL STRESS

FIG. 7-27 Element in triaxial stress

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 7.6 TRIAXIAL STRESS

This equation is valid for any material provided the strains are small.

If Hooke’s law holds for the material, we can substitute for the strains:

FIG. 7-27 Element in triaxial stress

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 7.6 TRIAXIAL STRESS
The strain-energy density for an element in triaxial stress is obtained by the same method
used for plane stress. When stresses σx and σy act alone (biaxial stress), the strain-energy
density (from Eq. 7-49 with the shear term discarded) is

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 7.6 TRIAXIAL STRESS
A special type of triaxial stress, called spherical stress, occurs whenever all three normal
stresses are equal

Under these stress conditions, any plane cut through the element will be subjected to the same normal
stress σ0 and will be free of shear stress. Thus, we have equal normal stresses in every direction and no
shear stresses anywhere in the material. Every plane is a principal plane, and the three Mohr’s circles
shown in Fig. 7-28 reduce to a single point.

The normal strains in spherical stress are also the same in all directions, provided the material is
homogeneous and isotropic. If Hooke’s law applies, the normal strains are:

Since there are no shear strains, an element in the shape of a cube

changes in size but remains a cube. In general, any body subjected
to spherical stress will maintain its relative proportions but will
expand or contract in volume depending upon whether σ0 is tensile
or compressive.

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 7.6 TRIAXIAL STRESS
The expression for the unit volume change can be obtained from Eq. (7-55) by substituting
for the strains from Eq. (7-59).

Equation (7-60) is usually expressed in more compact form by introducing a new quantity K called the
volume modulus of elasticity, or bulk modulus of elasticity, which is defined as follows:

Thus, the volume modulus can be defined as the ratio of the spherical
stress to the volumetric strain, which is analogous to the definition of
the modulus E in uniaxial stress. Note that the preceding formulas for e
and K are based upon the assumptions that the strains are small and
Hooke’s law holds for the material.

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 7.6 TRIAXIAL STRESS

From Eq. (7-61) for K, we see that if Poisson’s ratio ν equals 1/3, the moduli K and E are
numerically equal. If ν = 0, then K has the value E/3, and if ν = 0.5, K becomes infinite, which
corresponds to a rigid material having no change in volume (that is, the material is incompressible).

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 7.6 TRIAXIAL STRESS
The preceding formulas for spherical stress were derived for an element subjected to uniform
tension in all directions, but of course the formulas also apply to an element in uniform
compression. In the case of uniform compression, the stresses and strains have negative
signs. Uniform compression occurs when the material is subjected to uniform pressure in all
directions; for example, an object submerged in water or rock deep within the earth. This
state of stress is often called hydrostatic stress.

Although uniform compression is relatively common, a state of

uniform tension is difficult to achieve. It can be realized by
suddenly and uniformly heating the outer surface of a solid
metal sphere, so that the outer layers are at a higher temperature
than the interior. The tendency of the outer layers to expand
produces uniform tension in all directions at the center of the
sphere.

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 7.7 PLANE STRAIN

Chap 04 ` Engr. M. Fahim 43

 7.7 PLANE STRAIN

An exception occurs when an element in plane stress is subjected to equal and opposite normal stresses
(that is, when σx = -σy) and Hooke’s law holds for the material. In this special case, there is no normal
strain in the z direction, as shown by Eq. (7-34c), and therefore the element is in a state of plane strain as
well as plane stress.

Another special case, albeit a hypothetical one, is when a material has Poisson’s
ratio equal to zero (ν = 0); then every plane stress element is also in plane strain because εz = 0.

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 7.7 PLANE STRAIN
The stress-transformation equations derived for plane stress in the xy plane (Eqs. 7-4a and 7-
4b) are valid even when a normal stress σz is present. The explanation lies in the fact that the
stress σz does not enter the equations of equilibrium used in deriving Eqs. (7-4a) and (7-4b).
Therefore, the transformation equations for plane stress can also be used for the stresses in
plane strain.

An analogous situation exists for plane strain. Although we will derive the strain-transformation equations
for the case of plane strain in the xy plane, the equations are valid even when a strain εz exists. The reason
is simple enough—the strain εz does not affect the geometric relationships used in the derivations.
Therefore, the transformation equations for plane strain can also be used for the strains in plane stress.

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 7.7 PLANE STRAIN

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 7.7 PLANE STRAIN

Since each gage measures the normal strain in only one direction, and since the
directions of the principal stresses are usually unknown, it is necessary to use three
gages in combination, with each gage measuring the strain in a different direction.

A group of three gages arranged in a particular pattern is called a strain rosette.

Because the rosette is mounted on the surface of the body, where the material is in
plane stress, we can use the transformation equations for plane strain to calculate
the strains in various directions.

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 7.7 PLANE STRAIN

FIG. 7-36 Three electrical-resistance strain gages arranged as a 45° strain rosette
(magnified view).

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 7.7 PLANE STRAIN
EXAMPLE 7-7

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 7.7 PLANE STRAIN
EXAMPLE 7-8

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 PROBLEMS

From t

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