8.

Bolting and time-dependent rock deformation

• Problem frequently encountered in weak rock/high stress
environments
• Extreme case referred to as “squeezing” ground
– Can even occur in hard brittle rock with weak partings
– Examples below is squeezing in argillaceous quartzites at 2500 m depth
8.1 Empirical rule to predict squeezing
• Competency factor c occasionally used in civil engineering
applications (e.g. Muirwood, 1972; Nakano, 1979; Barla, 1995; Aydan et al., 1996)
c
c
gH
c = UCS of intact laboratory specimens
300
 = density of the rock NO SQUEEZING

Uniaxial compressive strength (MPa)

g = gravitational acceleration 250
Average strength of the
H = depth below surface. Witwatersrand quartzites
200

Squeezing line, c = 2
Squeezing if c < 2 150
Empirical rule confirmed
Squeezing conditions at
Hartebeestfontein Mine
at shallow depths
100 (< 400 m) in soft rock

50
SQUEEZING ULTRA DEEP MINING

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000
Depth (m)
8.2 Special support required in “heavy” squeezing ground
• Active approach: very heavy linings or pre-reinforcement

Simplon tunnel at Italian-Swiss border

(Steiner, 1994)
8.3 Special support required in “heavy” squeezing ground
• Passive approach: over-excavation, compression slots yielding bolts

Yielding bolts in Karawanken Tunnel

(Schubert and Schubert, 1993)
8.4 Time-dependent “unravelling” in mine tunnels
• Some unsupported roofs in unweathered rock remain stable for decades
• In contrast problems may appear in other tunnels soon after excavation
• Successive disintegration of fractured/jointed rock in which creep allowed to occur

t1 t2 t3

Tunnel roof quasi-stable Firsts blocks fall Further deterioration

after excavation owing to creep now possible
8.5 Example of time-dependent unravelling
• Rapid unravelling of the Westonarea formation lava in the hangingwall of
some South African gold mines

Original position
of hangingwall
8.6 Viscoelastic models and time of support installation

• Viscoelastic models commonly used to simulate creep in rock

– Allow the time of support installation to be investigated
• Viscoelastic theory has limitations as it cannot simulate the fracture zone
– Entire rock behaves as a time-dependent material
– Cannot simulate the creep of discrete discontinuities

Simulated tunnel convergence

for different times of support
installation (Pan and Dong,1991)
8.7 Numerical modelling using viscoplastic models
• Elasto-viscoplastic models can simulate creep of failed material
– Effect of different times of support installation can be investigated

vp e
 
St. Venant element with time-
dependent strength

Elastic element

Viscous element
Viscosity coefficient  = 1/
This type of model can be built into
FLAC using the FISH language
8.8 Case study: Squeezing in a pump chamber in a deep
gold mine
• Simulated with an elasto-viscoplastic model in FLAC

6 m cable anchors

HAULAGE PUMP
CHAMBER

2D simplification to simulated effect of anchors

8.9 Case study: Squeezing in a pump chamber in a deep
gold mine
• Simulated with an elasto-viscoplastic model in FLAC
3
Experimental
data
2.5
Deformation (mm)

1.5 Numerical 0.0115

simulation

1 0.011

0.0105
0.5

Tunnel closure (m)

0.01
0 ONSET OF YIELD
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 IN THE SUPPORT
0.0095
Time (days)
SUPPORT
0.009
Comparison between model deformation INSTALLATION

and actual measurements 0.0085

0.008
100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Time (days)

Effect of cable anchors

8.10 Timing of support installation very important
• Large number of case studies available to support theoretical and
modelling work.

Rapid installation of support critical in

rock masses prone to unravelling.
 Exercise 8.1 : Unravelling of the hangingwall
The mining crews tasked with doing the new tunnel development complains that they get
unravelling in the face area before they have time to install the tendon support. The rock is
immediately stable after the blast, but tends to unravel with time. You investigate the problem
and note that the structure of the rock in this area is dominated by:

• Two orthogonal vertical joint sets at regular spacing (same in both directions = 2 m)
with a slippery infilling
• A parting at a height of 2 m into the hangingwall

You have a suspicion that the friction angle of the joints with the infilling decrease after exposure
to moisture in the air and you sent samples away for testing. The laboratory report tells you that
the friction  on the joints decrease exponentially with time when exposed to the humid mine air
according to
 t   0 e t
where 0 = 20° and  = 0.1 h-1
a) How much time do the mining crews have to install the bolts if the horizontal stresses in this
area is 1 MPa in both directions?
b) Choose a bolt type and do a bolt design (tendon length and spacing) for this area.
(A sketch of the geometry of the joints and parting is given on the next slide)
Exercise : Unravelling of the hangingwall
Geometry of a block, delineated by the orthogonal joints and the parting
w

w
h

Parting
h
h h

h

Hangingwall

F = mg

Footwall

Example of creep
on a vertical joint
8.10 Active versus Passive Support
• Stress redistribution after face advance is immediate - Failure process is
time-dependent
• Amount of unravelling a function of time lapse between exposing roof
and installing bolts
• Pre-tensioning of bolts (active support) important to limit amount of
deformation and unravelling
• Support principle occasionally used in laminated coal hangingwall is
“beam creation”
– Only works if bolts are installed quickly and are pre-tensioned otherwise roof layers
have already slipped

End anchor
installations Resin support
need to be that is
tensioned to installed late
be effective is inefficient