SYLLABUS Investigative techniques

Upper 6 topics are easier 2) Cell & organelle structure—

than those of Lower 6: Types of tissue
LOWER 6 – 3) Control in cells
6) Taxonomy: Enzymes, DNA replication &
protein synthesis
Linnaean Binomial
classification system
B) Energetics
7) Biodiversity: 4) Photosynthesis:
Plantae, Insects, Light- & Dark reactions
Preservation C3, C4 & crassulacean plants,
8) Quantitative ecology: Limiting factors of
photosynthetic rate
Sampling techniques
5) Respiration:
A) cell & molecular Glycolysis, Krebs Cycle &
biology electron transport system
1) Basic chemicals in the 9) Nutrition
cell – water, carbs, 10) Gaseous exchange
proteins, lipids, ions, In animals & plants
vitamins 11) Transport: Cardiac cycle,
Movement across xylem & phloem
membranes
 UPPER 6
12) Homeostasis:
Temperature, glucose regulation,
liver, kidney, plants
13) Nervous System: Synapse,
muscle contraction, drugs
14) Endocrine system: amino &
steroid Hormones, estrous cycle,
phytohormones
15) Immunity:
Antibodies, lymphatic system,
AIDS.
16) Reproduction:
Sexual & asexual
17) Development:
Embryology, double fertilization
& seed germination
18) Growth:
Measuring, growth curves, ecdysis
19) Genetics:
Mendel’s laws, and their
exceptions
20) Mutation:
Gene mutation & chromosomal
mutation
21) Population genetics:
Hardy-Weinberg Law
22) Gene regulation &
expression: Lactose operon
23) Biotechnology:
Cloning, recombinant DNA
7) Biodiversity:
Monera, Protoctista, Fungi,
Animalia.
24) Variation:
Natural selection, Evolution
8) Ecology: Ecosystems, r & K
strategies
 BASIC CHEMICALS IN THE CELL(1)
Human body :70 % water. Animals
& plants = 65 – 95 %.
Physical properties : liquid at
ambient temperature. Boiling point
100 degrees C, freezing
0o C. Occupies space in container,
transparent, most dense at 4o C.
Low viscosity, universal solvent.
Difficult to compress, poor
conductor of electricity, adhesion
to other molecules, cohesion to
own molecules, Specific heat
capacity 1 calorie = 4184 J kg-1 oC-
1 = to raise 1 kg water by 1oC. 3
states : solid, liquid, gas. High
surface tension.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES: H2O :
Hydrogen bonds, 3-D linkage.
15% of molecules bound together.
Ambient temperature = liquid. Ice
= 100% molecules bonded together
at freezing point to become solid.
I) Hydrolysis :Breaks up other
substances --Breaking up bonds in
large molecules. E.g.
Polysaccharide becomes simple
sugar. Speeded up by enzymes.
II) Condensation- reaction that
produces water (reverse of
hydrolysis) Monosaccharide
condenses to polysaccharide &
water.
III) Photolysis : (water is broken
up) light reaction
Properties of water important as a
component and medium of
organisms.
PHYSIOLOGICAL ROLES:
Good solvent : 1) Water molecule
with poles (1450). Therefore, polar
solvent

WATER (2)
2) Universal solvent : Consists of
polar molecules, easily dissolves
other polar compounds.
3) Ions & molecules free only if
dissolved, cellular reactions only
occur in an aqueous medium, so
water is main component of
protoplasm.
4) 90% of blood plasma is water.
Materials dissolved in the plasma
can be transported throughout the
body – water is important
constituent of living things.
5) Gases and mineral salts can be
dissolved in water for aquatic life.
So, it’s suitable as a medium for
them.
6) High specific heat capacity :
i) water absorbs a lot of heat to
raise a temperature slightly
Even though a lot of heat lost,
temperature only goes down a
little. A body of water has a
more or less constant
temperature. So, suitable
medium for life.
ii) Main component of
organisms : because of high
specific heat capacity. preserves
constant body temperature.
7) Surface tension : suitable
medium for organisms – Small
ones supported and live on the
surface, or stuck to the
underside, e.g. water boatman.
This property is important in
plants – brings water in narrow
xylem.
8)Density decreases with
decreasing temperature.
Maximum at 40C. Water at 0oC
freezes on the surface=
Insulation preventing freezing
of the whole pond .

(3)water & carbs
9) High latent heat of fusion and
evaporation
A lot of heat needs to be lost from
water at 00C before it freezes.
Contents of cell and surrounding
water difficult to freeze. Water =
suitable medium and component of
cells. High heat of vaporization=
transpiration effective for reducing
heat. 10) Transparent: Aquatic
plants can carry out photosynthesis.
light can penetrate water to reach
chlorophyll.
11) Low viscosity: Main
component of plasma. Particles
flow quickly in the body. Aquatic
organisms navigate smoothly.
Lubricant in the body. Movement
of faeces in the rectum, reduces
friction between joints.
12) Adhesion and Cohesion: Sends
water & minerals up xylem vessels
under pressure.
Why is the specific heat
capacity of water so high?
1) The heat energy disrupts H-
bonds, & then makes water
molecules move faster. As heat
is absorbed when the bonds
break, water absorbs and stores
a large amount of heat while
warming up only a few degrees.
2) Conversely, when water is
cooled, more hydrogen bonds
form. Heat energy is released
when the H-bonds form,
slowing the cooling process.
Water moderates temperature
by evaporative cooling. The
molecules with the greatest
energy vaporize first.
Why is ice less dense than
liquid water?
H-bonds in ice are stable, with
each molecule bonded to 4
neighbours.
 (4)
CARBOHYDRATES Can reduce
Basic formula: CnH2nOn (1:2:1) Benedict’s/Fehling’s solution.
Organic compound. Functions :
1) Energy source. 2) OXIDATION REDUCTION
Important component of nucleic
acid. 3) Cell structure – wall &
membrane
4) Defence & protection - chitin, Add oxygen Add hydrogen
thick gum 5) Storage
compound – energy.
3 types of sugar – 1) MONO (1
molecule) 2), di (2 molecules)
3) Poly (many molecules) Remove Remove
CLASSIFICATION OF hydrogen oxygen
MONOSACCHARIDES :
1) According to the number of C
atoms:
Triose (C3H603) = 3C, Pentose
Remove Add electrons
C5H1005 = 5C, Hexose(C6H1206) = electrons
6C.
2) According to the functional
group –aldehyde (H-C=0); carbonyl Increase Decrease
(C=0).
valency valency
Physical characteristics – soluble in
water. Sweet, small molecules, low
mass, can crystallize.
REDUCING SUGAR (5)
Produces disaccharide(poly-S)
through condensation.
CLASSIFICATION OF
MONOSACCHARIDES :
According to the number of C
atoms, or functional group.
E.g. - Functional group at Carbon
no. 1 = Aldehyde (Propanal), like
Triose - glyceraldehyde ( an aldose
sugar)
Other aldose sugars:Pentose –
Ribose, and Hexose –Glucose.
Ketose sugars : Triose –
dihydroxyiacetone, Pentose –
ribulose, and Hexose – fructose.
Functional group = carbonyl
(propanon)
PENTOSE : Can exist in the form
of a (i) chain(ribose)
(ii) ring (when dissolved in water)
HEXOSE : I) chain (e.g. glucose)
4. Usually involves 2 monosaccharide
ii)ring iii) Can exist in 2 isomers
(alpha, beta) same molecular
formula but different arrangement
of atoms. E.g. glucose alpha –
OH group jutting out below C no.1,
but glucose beta – OH jutting out
above
FRUCTOSE : 3 forms – chain, 5C
ring (furanose), 6C ring (pyranose)
Monosaccharide test:
1. All monosaccharides and some
disaccharides are reducing sugars.-
Because of free functional group in
the molecule for donating electrons
in the reduction process.
2. When a monosaccharide is
boiled in Benedict’s solution,
copper ions(blue) become brick red
precipitate(Cu20)
Disaccharides: 1. General formula
= C12H22011. 2. Formed by
condensation. 3. Dehydration,
because water molecule is
removed.
molecules(Hexose) Can happen to
ribose (pentose) also.
AMYLOSE (6)
Glucose alpha –glucose alpha
(condensation) becomes maltose.
Maltose(hydrolysis)becomes
glucose alpha
NON-REDUCING SUGAR E.G.
SUCROSE- hydrolyzed to glucose
alpha and fructose beta. (By adding
dilute HCl).
TESTS: Boiling sucrose with
Benedict’s/Fehling’s solution –
negative result.
Add hydrochloric acid. Neutralize
with sodium bicarbonate
Add Benedict/Fehling and reboil.
Product = brick red precipitate.
MAIN FUNCTIONS OF
DISACCHARIDES:
1) Maltose – respiration substrate
2) Sucrose – Extra carbohydrates
transported in the form of sucrose
because inactive & soluble.
Storage in sugar cane and beet.
3) Lactose – CHO source for
nursing babies.
POLYSACCHARIDES
1) Consists of monosaccharide
units. Condensed and linked by
glycosidic bonds.
2) GENERAL PROPERTIES
A) Not soluble, but forms colloid.
B) Not sweet C) Will not
crystallize. D) High molecular
mass
E) can hydrolyze,
3) Divided into 3 main groups:
Starch, glycogen and cellulose
STARCH : consists of glucose
polymers. General formula =
(C6H10O5)n n = 300 – 1000.
2 polymers entwined together –
amylose and amylopectin.
AMYLOSE : 1) Long straight chain
of glucose alpha units joined with
glycosidic alpha 1,4 bonds.
2) Because of more hydroxide
groups on a side chain, hydrogen
bonds between glucose sub-units
cause the amylose molecule to form
helix when suspended in water.

3) Spaces in the helix just big
enough to trap iodine molecules and
form dark blue complex.
4) Dissolves in hot water and the
blue complex disappears because
the molecule has become straight.
Blue again when cold.
AMYLOPECTIN :
I) Consists of branching glucose
polymers. 600 – 6000 glucose sub-
units. (cf. why diabetics shouldn’t
eat too much rice although not
sweet) II) Each branch is a
short glucose chain linked with
glycosidic alpha 1,4. The branches
are linked by glycosidic 1,6 bonds.
GLYCOGEN
Molecular formula = (C6H1005)n
N = 300 – 1000.
Chemical characteristics : I) Can be
hydrolyzed by the enzyme glycogen
phosphorylase to glucose,
II) or glucose –1-phosphate.
Distribution = liver, brain, muscles,
cytoplasmic granules in plants.
(7)
Structure same as amylopectin,
EXCEPT chains are shorter &
more branches. Functions: Animal
food storage compound and energy
source.
CELLULOSE
General properties same as starch.
Chemical properties : Enzymes can
hydrolyze it into glucose beta units.
STRUCTURE : 1) A long straight
chain, with glucose beta units
linked in glycoside beta 1,4 bonds.
2) Neighbouring cellulose chains
cross linked by hydrogen bonds.
This type of bonding is possible as
cellulose chains is formed from
glycoside-beta 1,4 bonds which
straighten the chain. The
hydroxide groups jut out in all
directions to form H bonds. Forms
a stable & strong structure. Cell
wall – 80 to 2000 chains bind to
form thin fibres.
 Lipids (8)
1) Consists of C,H & O : organic
compound, with low oxygen ratio.
Olive oil = C57H114O6
2) Formed from fatty acids & glycerol.
A) Fatty acids : consist of
carboxylic acid with long hydrocarbon
chain ; 14 – 20 C atoms. Saturated
fatty acid: without double bond
between 2 C atoms. Unsaturated : l or
more double bonds.
B) Glycerol : a type of alcohol known
as propane-1,2,3-trid
3) A) Essential fatty acids
(i) needed by the body, but the body
cannot synthesize it e.g. Linoleic acid
linolenic acid & arachinodic acid for
the control of blood pressure &
clotting.
(ii)Plants can synthesize linoleic and
linolenic acids – source of fatty acid in
food.
B) Non-essential fatty acids :
Needed by the body and which it
can synthesize, e.g. 0leic, stearic &
palmitic acids.
4) Known as ester alcohol, because
formed from acid & alcohol.
5) Hydrophobic organic
compound: not soluble – avoid
water, but soluble in organic
solvents (acetone & chloro-
form) TEST FOR LIPID
1) Grease spot test
2) Fat emulsion with alcohol test:
Usually, ethanol dissolves in water,
but if a little lipid dissolved in 2 ml
of ethanol, and the solution is
dropped into a test tube of water,
an emulsion of lipid in water is
formed. If the substance is not
lipid, the ethanol just dissolves
without any emulsion.
6) 3 groups : a) Triglycerides
b) phospholipids c) steroids
PHOSPHOLIPID (9)
1) 1 ester (--O--) is formed from 1
molecule of glycerol and 3
molecules of fatty acid, by
condensation/esterization.
2) All fats & oils are triglycerides.
3) Different types of oil/fat
formed from different fatty acids:-
a)saturated fatty acids – because
packed arrangement, no empty
space. functional group = COOH.
stearic acid C17H35COOH.i) Solid
at room temperature (ii)
Mostly animal fats.
b) Unsaturated – Oleic Acid :
C17H33COOH : i) liquid at room
temperature ii)Mostly plant fats
4) Distribution : in adipose tissue,
surface of heart, liver, alimentary
canal, eggs of birds & insects.
5. Functions : I) as energy source –
respiratory substrate.
II) Storage medium.
III) Forms plasma membrane : fat
with phosphoric acid =
phospholipid. IV) Heat insulator
–mechanical protection, bouyancy
force V) Insulator of
Electricity at myelin sheath.
VI) Water-proof layer on feathers.
Fatty acid (14 – 20C) becomes
triglyceride
PHOSPHOLIPID : 1) Triglyceride
in which 1 of the fatty acid groups
is replaced by another group that
contains phosphorus through
condensation of 1 molecule
glycerol and 2 molecules of fatty
acid and 1 molecule phosphoric
acid
2) Its structure is a glycerol
molecule bound to ester with 2
molecules of fatty acid & 1
molecule of phosphoric acid
residue
STEROIDS (10)
3) Phosphoric acid residue on a
molecule of phospholipid
bound to another molecule.
E.g.Choline forms lechitin.
4) Phospholipid distribution in
the middle of plasma and
organelle fibres, and on
nerve,heart and kidney tissues.
5) FUNCTIONS :
1) structural component of cell
membrane
2) Lechitin involved in
formation of acetylcholine
transmitters and neurons.
3)Transport of fat in the body :
Lipids transported in the form
of phospholipid because its
head is hydrophilic, being
soluble in water and able to be
transported by blood.
4) Damaged tissue –
phospholipid helps in clotting
of blood by producing platelets.
5. The usual phospholipid =
lechitin, i.e. main component of
cell membrane bi-layer.
6. In aqueous medium, lechitin
molecules arrange themselves
spontaneously to form a bi-
layer, with hydrophobic tails
facing inwards, and
hydrophilic to the outside. This
barrier retains water in the cell,
which also becomes a living
unit, and enables exchange of
materials with aqueous
environment.
STEROIDS Structure = Large
molecule which consists of 4 C
atom rings bound together, with
R (a long variable side chain) =
Basic framework, different R’s
form different steroids.
Examples: cholesterol,
testosterone.
Properties : 1)Insoluble in
water..
 10B
2) Soluble in non-polar solvents, like
ether.
A) Cholesterol : most important
component of cell membrane,
especially of nerves, besides
phospholipid. Precursor = raw
material for synthesis of other lipids.
B) Testosterone : Reproductive
hormone of male mammal.
C) Estrogen & progesterone :
Reproductive hormones of female
mammal.
D) Adreno-cortical hormones :
synthesized in the adrenal cortex
gland for definite responses.
E) Bile acids – emulsifier for fats.
F) Calciferol : (Vit. D) helps
absorption of Ca2+ and PO43 - from the
small intestine.
G) Ecdysone : the hormone that causes
ecdysis (moulting) of arthropods
Cholesterol (saturated fat from
animals)
Too much = arteriosclerosis
( deposits on arterial wall),
Coronary thrombosis (deposits
on wall of coronary artery)
Testosterone = drug (anabolic
steroid) – fat-soluble, diffuses
through cell membrane to nucleus–
quickens transcription of genes
that control synthesis of myofibril
proteins (actin and myosin) =
muscle tissue increases.
Abuse = damaged liver, sterility,
death,
Women = male characteristics.