Metal Forming Processes

C Sahay
Processes for slabs, billets and blooms

0.5m-1.8 m wide×
50-300 mm thick

50-150 sq mm

150-400 sq mm
 Primary Metal Forming processes
• Rolling
• Forging
• Extrusion
• Tube and wire Drawing
• Deep Drawing
Rolling
 Rolling
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RkP3Qxn
NLiY
Changes in Grains during Rolling
Pressure on the rolls
 Forging

Forging Machining
Open and Closed Die Forging
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YobXFOD
kp50
 Extrusion

Direct Extrusion

Impact Extrusion

Indirect
Extrusion

Hydrostatic Extrusion
 Extrusion
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y75IQksB
b0M
Drawing
 Drawing
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QKAg1y
MZIpY
Deep Drawing
Punch Movement and Deformation
 Defects in Deep drawing

Wrinkling in Wrinkling in Tearing Earing Surface

the flange the wall Scratches
The Deep Drawing Process
 Deep Drawing
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hUhisi2F
Buw
 Mechanical Behavior of Materials
• Mechanical Behavior of Materials(Contd.)
– Failure and Fracture
– Deformation Zone Geometry
– Residual Stress
– Yield Criteria
– Work of Deformation

20
 Engineering Stress- Engineering Strain
Curve
• Engineering Stress-Engineering Strain Relation
in Tension
Su
Sf
Sy

𝑒𝑦 eu ef

21
 True Stress- True Strain Relation
• True Stress- True Strain Relation


d
u 
d


u
1

22
 Hydrostatic Pressure
• Effect of Hydrostatic pressure
– Increases strain at fracture
– no effect on true stress-true strain curve
– no effect on the strain at which necking begins
– Ductile materials failure is not affected by strain
energy caused by hydrostatic pressure

23
Constitutive Relations

Power Law :   K n
Ludwik :   Y  H n

 
 
n
Ramberg Osgood Relation    k 
E E

Voce :   a  b  a  1  e  n 
Swift :   ca   n
 E 
Prager :   Y tanh  
Y

24
 Instability for Power law
• Instability Conditions with Power Law Material
P   A  KA n  KA0 e    n
dP
d
 
 KA0  e    n  ne    n 1 

  n  n
 KA0   e   ne   0

  
 n      Kn n

25
 Strain Rate
𝑙−𝑙0
𝑑𝑒 𝑑 1 𝑑𝑙 𝑣
𝑙0
-Engineering strain rate, 𝑒ሶ = = = =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑙0 𝑑𝑡 𝑙0
𝑙
𝑑𝜀 ln𝑙 1 𝑑𝑙 1 1 𝑑𝑙 𝑣
0
-True strain rate, 𝑒ሶ = = = = =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑙0 𝑑𝑡 𝑙0 𝑙 𝑑𝑡 𝑙
𝑙0

Stress Strain Strain Rate model (constitutive relation)

𝜎 = 𝐾𝜀 𝑛 𝜀ሶ 𝑚

26
Plane Stress-Plane Strain Relations
• Plane Strain

 xx 
E
1   1  2 
1    xx   yy 

 yy 
E
1   1  2 
1    yy   xx 
 zz    xx   yy 
E
 xy  2G xy   xy
1 
 zz   xz   yz   xz   yz  0

27
 Plane Stress-Plane Strain Relations
• Plane Stress
 xx 
E
 xx   yy 
1  2

 yy 
E
 yy   xx 
1  2

 xy  2G xy

 zz    xx   yy 
1 
 zz   xz   yz   xz   yz  0

28
 Maximum Distortion Energy Failure
Criteria
• Von Mises Stress: Flow occurs when Von
Mises Stress ( equivalent stress) equals he flow
stress                6     
2 2 2 2 2 2
 
xx yy yy zz zz xx xy yz zx
e
2

• Equivalent Stress( Max Shear Stress Criteria):

e= 1- 3

29
 Effective Stress
• Consider Plane strain conditions ( f = Flow
Stress)
 3  0;
  1
 2  0  2    1    2  1  0.51
E E
2
1   2    2   3    3  1 
2 2 2
 e 
2
3=0
1  0.51   0.51  0  0  1 
2 2 2

2
2

3
1 1   f
2 3

30
 Effective Strain
• The strains for linear elastic are written as:
 xx  yy  zz 
 xx      
E  E E 
 yy   zz  xx 
 yy    
E  E E 
 zz   xx  yy 
 zz      
E  E E 
 xy  yz 
 xy  ;  yz  :  zx  zx
2G 2G 2G

31
 Effective Strain

 xx   yy 2   yy   zz 2   zz   xx 2

 6  xy 2   yz 2   zx 2 
1   
2   xx   yy 2   yy   zz 2   zz   xx 2 
 
 E

 
  6  2   2   2
xy yz zx  

  xx   yy 2   yy   zz 2   zz   xx 2

 
2
1  
 6  xy   yz   zx
2 2 2
   2 e
2
 E 

32
 Effective Strain
• For plastic flow, =0.5,and using distortion
energy criteria: 2
  xx   yy    yy   zz    zz   xx 
2 2

 
2
   2
 6  xy 2   yz 2   zx 2    2 2 
1 9 e
 e
 E  2 E2

 e e
E
 xx   yy 2   yy   zz 2   zz   xx 2 
0.5
2 

 
3  6  2   2   2
xy yz zx  


33
 Effective Strain
• Similarly using Maximum Shear Stress Criteria:
  
1  1    2  3 
E  E E
  
 2  2    3  1 
E E E
  
 3  3    1  2 
E E E 
1  
1   3  1   3   1    e  1    e
E E
2
  e  1   3 
3

34
Comparison of Hardness Tests

35
Relation of Hardness and Strength

Hardness, H B    y  3 y
UTS ( psi )  500( H B ) (kg / mm 2 under 3000 kg load )
UTS ( MPa )  3.5 ( H B )

36
 Deformation Work
• Work done in uniaxial Force
– Infinitesimal work in deformation d(l), dU=F d(l) = A d(l)
= A d(l) d) =Al d

Infinitesimal Work of
F Deformation per unit
volume=  d

l
dl
37
 Work of Deformation
• Uniaxial Stress

u  Specific Energy  Energy per unit volume

1 n 1
 11
u    d   K d  K
n 1    1
0
n 1 n 1

38
 Work of Deformation
• Multi-axial Stresses: If 1,2, and 3 are
principal stresses, and 1,2, and 3are principal
strains,
u   du   1d1   2d 2   2d 3 
• Alternatively:

u    ed e

39
Basic Mechanics Applications to Deformation Processes

h0 h

d0 d

40
Basic Mechanics Applications to Deformation
Processes

Fd

41
 Limit on Drawing
• Work done in drawing from an area of 𝐴0 to A

𝜀𝑓
𝜀 𝑛+1 𝜀𝑓 𝑛+1
𝑊 = 𝐴𝐿 න 𝜎𝑑𝜀 = 𝐴𝐿 න 𝐾𝜀 𝑛 𝑑𝜀 = 𝐴𝐿 𝐾 = 𝐴𝐿𝐾
𝑛+1 0
𝑛+1

Work done is also equal to

𝑊 = 𝜎𝑑 𝐴𝐿
𝜀𝑓 𝑛+1 𝐴0
𝜎𝑑 = 𝐾 ≤ 𝐾𝜀𝑓 𝑛 → 𝜀𝑓 ≤ 𝑛 + 1 → ln ≤𝑛+1
𝑛+1 𝐴𝑓
𝐴0 𝑛 +1 𝐴0 − 𝐴𝑓 1
≤𝑒 ; 𝑀𝑎𝑥 𝑅𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑅 = =1−
𝐴𝑓 𝐴0 𝑒 𝑛+1
 Extrusion
• Strain Calculations 𝜎 = 𝐾𝜀 𝑛

𝐷0 𝐷𝑓

𝐴0
𝜀 = ln → 𝜎𝑓 = 𝐾𝜀 𝑛
𝐴𝑓
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜀𝑛+1 𝜀𝑛+1
Work done=𝑝 4 𝐷0 2 𝐿0 = 𝐷0
2
𝐿0 𝑢 = 𝐷0
2
𝐿0 ‫𝜀𝑑𝜎 ׬‬ = 2
𝐷 𝐿 𝐾 → 𝑝=𝐾 𝑛+1
4 4 4 0 0 𝑛+1
 Rolling

𝜎3 𝜃

𝜃 𝜎2
N
ℎ0 𝜎1 ℎ𝑓 F

For plate to be pulled in by rolls

𝐹 cos 𝜃 − 𝑁 sin 𝜃 > 0
𝐹
→ > tan 𝜃 ; 𝜇 > tan 𝜃
𝑁
Normal stress
ℎ𝑓
Friction stress 𝜀 = ln
ℎ0
 Rolling
• Under uniaxial compression
𝜎3 = −𝜎𝑓
• Plane Strain conditions
– Assuming rolling to be a predominantly
compression process under plane strain
2 2
𝜎1 − 𝜎3 = 𝜎𝑓 → 𝜎3 = − 𝜎𝑓
3 3
 Rolling
∆ℎ = ℎ0 − ℎ𝑓
2
2
∆ℎ
𝐿= 𝑅 − 𝑅−
2

∆ℎ 2 2
∆ℎ
2 = 𝑅2 − 𝑅2 − 𝑅∆ℎ + ≈ 𝑅∆ℎ
L 2

𝜎𝑓 𝐿𝑤 = 𝜎𝑓 𝑤 𝑅∆ℎ, 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝐹= 2 2
𝜎𝑓 𝐿𝑤 = 𝜎𝑓 𝑅∆ℎ 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
3 3
𝐿
𝑇 ≈ 𝐹 ; 𝑃 = 2𝑇𝜔
2